Division?  M4\  2.  \ 

4ks^ 

Section 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2019  with  funding  from 
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https://archive.org/details/publicspeakingnaOOkirk 


PUBLIC  SPEA 


A  Natural  Method 


BY 

FRANK  HOME  KIRKPATRICK 


Sometime  Professor  of  Oratory  in  Hiram  College  and  The 
University  of  Wooster,  Principal  of  the  Toronto  Conserva¬ 
tory  School  of  Expression;  Principal  of  School  of  Speech 
Education  of  Toronto  Association  Schools,  Special  Lecturer 
in  Public  Speaking  in  McMaster  University,  St.  Augustine’s 
Seminary,  and  the  Extension  Department  of  the  University 

ot  Toronto 


Author  of  “Oral  Interpretation  of  Literature 99 


NEW 


YORK 


GEORGE  H.  DORAN  COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,  I923 
BY  GEORGE  H.  DORAN  COMPANY 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING.  Ill 


PRINTED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


PREFACE 

This  book  is  offered  in  response  to  a  popular  demand 
for  a  practical,  straightforward,  and  intelligible  work  on 
public  speaking,  devoid  of  the  usual  technicalities. 

I  do  not  wish  it  to  be  inferred,  from  the  avowed  pur¬ 
pose  of  the  book,  that  I  have  intentionally  treated  the 
subject  superficially.  I  have  based  my  suggestions  upon 
the  same  principles  as  the  instruction  I  offer  in  my 
academic  teaching.  Consequently,  those  within  the  walls 
as  well  as  those  without  the  walls  of  the  colleges  and 
universities,  may  find  the  book  helpful. 

It  is  customary  to  include  a  number  of  the  great 
orations  in  a  work  on  public  speaking.  However,  since 
the  space  available  would  not  permit  the  inclusion  of  a 
representative  collection  of  the  masterpieces,  I  inserted 
only  a  few  necessary  excerpts.  Then,  the  large  number 
of  comprehensive  anthologies  of  oratory,  available  to 
everybody,  render  it  quite  unnecessary  to  devote  a  large 
section  of  a  book,  such  as  this,  to  this  end. 

Hitherto,  the  study,  memorization,  and  delivery  of 
excerpts  from  the  great  orations  have  been  stressed  in 
the  training  for  public  speaking.  This  practice  is  valu¬ 
able  as  an  exercise  in  literary  interpretation.  It  does  not 
develop  the  ability  to  think  and  speak  one’s  own  thoughts, 
on  one’s  feet,  and  before  an  audience.  It  is  to  the  reali¬ 
zation  of  such  a  conception  of  training  for  public  speak¬ 
ing  that  the  instruction  in  this  book  is  directed. 


v 


vi 


PREFACE 


Of  course,  I  do  not  wish  it  to  be  inferred  that  the  study 
and  memorization  of  the  great  orations,  as  a  whole  or  in 
part,  is  not  desirable.  An  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
literature  of  any  subject  is  necessary  to  an  exponent  of 
that  subject. 

The  assignments,  in  connection  with  each  chapter,  are 
types  of  suitable  exercises  for  the  development  of  the 
process  and  relations  in  public  speaking.  It  will  prove 
no  strain  upon  the  originality  of  the  serious  student  of 
public  speaking  to  select  other  themes,  with  which  to 
apply  the  treatment  prescribed  in  the  assignments. 

I  must  acknowledge  my  indebtedness  to  Lothrop,  Lee 
&  Shepard  Company  for  the  poem  “Hullo,”  taken  from 
“Back  Country  Poems”  by  Sam  Walter  Foss;  to  Mr.  S. 
B.  Gundy,  Oxford  University  Press,  for  an  excerpt  from 
Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier’s  eulogy  of  Queen  Victoria;  to 
Charles  Scribner’s  Sons  for  poems  by  Robert  Louis 
Stevenson;  to  Thomas  B.  Mosher  for  “Invictus”  by  Wil¬ 
liam  Ernest  Henley;  to  the  distinguished  Canadian  poet, 
Wilson  MacDonald,  for  the  use  of  his  poem  “A  Song  to 
the  Valiant”  recently  published  in  the  London  Mercury; 
and  to  Robert  Frost  for  the  privilege  of  quoting  “Not  to 
Keep,”  “one  of  the  most  poignant  pieces  inspired  by  the 
War.” 

I  wish  to  express  my  gratitude  to  Milton  Palmer  Lang- 
staff  for  assistance  in  going  over  the  manuscript  in  prepa¬ 
ration  for  the  printer;  to  Margaret  M.  Kirkpatrick  for 
assistance  in  proof-reading. 

I  would  also  thank  everyone  from  whom  I  have  derived 
direct  or  indirect  help  in  the  preparation  of  this  book. 

F.  H.  K. 


INTRODUCTION 

With  the  vast  majority  of  people,  ideas  are  condemned 
to  life  imprisonment,  and  kept  in  solitary  confinement. 
Public  speaking  is  one  of  the  keys  by  means  of  which  the 
cell  doors  of  repression  may  be  unlocked  and  ideas  set 
free. 

Recently,  an  acquaintance,  who  is  an  accomplished 
speaker,  related  the  following  significant  incident  to  me : 
“A  short  time  ago,  I  enjoyed  the  hospitality  of  a  friend 
in  the  country.  We  had  been  intimate  since  boyhood. 
We  were  schoolmates  and  college  chums.  Upon  gradua¬ 
tion,  I  remained  in  the  city  and  he  went  back  to  the  farm. 
He  is  now  a  man  of  substance,  as  well  as  of  intelligence, 
mature  judgment,  and  wide  information. 

“During  my  visit,  the  annual  meeting  of  the  electors  of 
the  township,  in  which  my  friend  resides,  was  held  for 
the  purpose  of  nominating  candidates  for  municipal 
offices.  My  host  was  keenly  interested  and  attended  the 
meeting.  On  his  invitation,  I  accompanied  him. 

“Several  problems  confronted  the  municipality.  There 
was  much  difference  of  opinion  regarding  the  solution  of 
these  problems.  The  candidates  for  municipal  honors 
were  many  and  the  debate  was  spirited  and  general.  My 
friend  neither  made  nor  seconded  a  nomination,  nor  did 
he  offer  a  single  suggestion.  He  sat  as  if  glued  to  his 
chair. 

“During  our  return  journey,  he  commented  upon  the 

•  • 
vn 


INTRODUCTION 


•  •  • 
vm 

speeches  of  the  different  candidates  freely  and  with  dis¬ 
crimination.  He  was  quick  to  detect  any  fallacy.  He 
discussed  the  problems  of  the  municipality  with  more  than 
ordinary  discernment.  I  asked  him  why  he  had  not  given 
his  fellow  electors  at  the  gathering  and  the  community 
in  general,  the  advantage  of  his  intimate  knowledge  of 
the  municipal  problems,  and  of  his  sound  judgment  in 
dealing  with  them.  His  answer  was,  7  can't  make  a 
speech.  When  I  stand  on  my  feet  before  an  audience,  my 
mind  becomes  a  blank.*  ” 

How  was  it  that  this  man  who,  privately,  could  discuss 
questions  of  public  interest  with  such  ease,  fluency,  and 
clarity,  yet,  before  an  audience,  became  as  one  who  had 
lost  the  power  of  speech?  How  is  it  that  everyone  can 
communicate  his  ideas  without  self-consciousness  in  the 
intimacy  of  conversation,  and  that  so  few  can  do  so  before 
an  audience? 

The  difficulty  arises  from  a  misconception  of  the  nature 
of  public  speaking.  It  is  assumed  that  it  is  essentially 
different  from  conversation  or  natural  speech;  that  it  is 
a  special  gift,  an  unusual  form  of  oral  expression.  This 
bewilderment,  as  to  the  nature  of  public  speaking,  leads 
to  apprehension,  self-consciousness,  mental  confusion,  and 
often  speechlessness  on  the  part  of  those  who  would,  and 
should,  practise  it.  It  has  been  customary  to  seek  to 
overcome  the  difficulty  by  the  superimposition  of  elocu¬ 
tionary  rules.  This  has  merely  aggravated  the  trouble 
by  introducing  the  element  of  the  artificial. 

It  is  obvious,  then,  that  a  right  point  of  view  must  be 
secured. 

What  is  the  right  point  of  view  in  regard  to  public 
speaking?  The  writer  believes,  that  it  is,  in  every  par¬ 
ticular,  essentially  the  same  as  conversation,  or  more 
accurately,  a  “talk,”  since  a  “talk”  is  the  communication 
of  ideas  by  one  person  to  others,  while  a  conversation 


INTRODUCTION 


ix 


implies  the  interchange  of  ideas.  True,  public  speaking 
is  a  variant  of  a  “talk,”  but  it  varies  from  the  norm,  only, 
in  that  each  factor  of  the  conversational  process  is  accen¬ 
tuated. 

Let  us  compare  the  factors  of  an  ordinary,  intimate 
talk,  with  those  of  public  speaking.  The  purpose  of  a 
talk  is  to  convey  ideas;  so  is  that  of  conversation.  The 
means,  through  which  these  ideas  are  expressed  in  a  talk 
are  the  voice  and  body.  The  means  in  public  speaking 
are  the  same,  with  this  modification, — they  are  used  with 
more  accentuation.  The  environment  of  a  “talk”  is  made 
up  of  one  or  more  listeners;  that  of  a  speech,  of  many. 
The  purpose  of  a  talk  is  to  impress  ideas  upon  the  hearers ; 
the  same  is  true  of  public  speaking.  It  may  be  urged  that 
the  chief  aim  of  public  speaking  is  to  convince  and  per¬ 
suade.  May  not  this  be  true  of  a  “talk”?  Has  not  some¬ 
one  in  an  intimate  talk  endeavored  to  convince  you  about 
the  merits  of  some  proposition,  and  to  persuade  you  to 
act  upon  his  suggestion? 

In  conversation,  or  intimate  talk,  if  one  has  something 
to  say,  if  one’s  ideas  are  clearly  organized,  one  will  talk 
with  purpose,  with  naturalness,  with  persuasion,  and  with¬ 
out  self-consciousness  or  confusion.  If  those  same  factors 
hold  in  public  speaking — and  they  do,  with  extension  and 
accentuation,  due  to  the  greater  number  of  hearers — why 
should  the  speaker  not  function  just  as  purposefully, 
naturally,  and  persuasively,  and  without  self-conscious¬ 
ness  and  confusion? 

The  point  is,  that  if  a  speaker  will  apply  the  same  pro¬ 
cesses,  conditions,  and  relations,  on  his  feet,  before  a 
number  of  listeners,  that  he  does  in  the  intimacy  of 
conversation  with  one  or  a  few,  he  will  speak  simply, 
naturally,  and  spontaneously.  He  will  not  be  afflicted 
with  apprehension  of  failure,  mental  confusion,  stage 
fright,  or  speechlessness. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 


PREFACE  .  V 

INTRODUCTION . vii 

I  CONVERSATIONAL  STANDARD  . 1 5 

II  PUBLIC  SPEAKING  A  VARIANT  OF  A  TALK  20 

III  NATURALNESS  AND  SIMPLICITY . 24 

IV  PREPARATION . 28 

V  CLEARNESS . 34 

VI  CONCENTRATION  FOR  PUBLIC  SPEAKING  .  38 

VII  HOW  TO  INTEREST  AN  AUDIENCE  ....  42 

VIII  HOW  TO  GAIN  AND  HOLD  ATTENTION  .  .  47 

IX  PAUSING . 51 

X  EMPHASIS  OF  IMPORTANT  WORDS  ....  $6 

XI  HOW  TO  ELIMINATE  SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS  60 
XII  HOW  TO  AVOID  MONOTONY . 63 

XIII  CARRYING  POWER  OF  VOICE . 69 

XIV  NATURALNESS  IN  GESTURING . 72 

XV  DELIBERATION  . 77 

XVI  TACT  . 82 

XVII  DIGNITY . IOI 

XVIII  SPEAKING  WITH  AUTHORITY . IO4 

XIX  DICTION . 107 


XI 


Xll 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

XX  VIGOROUS  EXPRESSION . IIO 

XXI  WHEN  TO  END  A  SPEECH . 113 

XXII  HOW  TO  ATTAIN  THE  PURPOSE  OF  A 

SPEECH . Il6 

XXIII  VIVIDNESS . 119 

XXIV  PERSONALITY . 123 

XXV  THE  SPONTANEOUS  EXPRESSION  OF  THE 

FEELING . I30 

xxvi  voice  education . 133 

XXVII  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  . 138 

XXVIII  PROBLEMS . I43 

APPENDIX . I49 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


I 

CONVERSATIONAL  STANDARD 

AN  accepted  standard  is  necessary  in  the  considera¬ 
tion  of  the  subject  of  public  speaking.  By  an 
accepted  standard  I  do  not  mean  a  rigid,  unvarying  form 
to  which  everyone,  who  essays  to  speak,  must  subscribe 
if  he  would  speak  acceptably.  When  a  fixed  standard  is 
imposed,  individuality  is  swallowed  up  in  uniformity  and 
artificiality.  I  do  mean  a  supremely  excellent  form,  vary¬ 
ing  with  each  individual,  but  originating  in  every  case 
from  the  same  principles  or  basis.  Such  a  standard  allows 
opportunity  for  the  free  play  of  personality. 

Now,  what  is  this  very  desirable  standard  for  public 
speaking,  which  permits  infinite  variety,  and  allows  oppor¬ 
tunity  for  continuous  growth  in  expression?  I  shall 
enlist  the  assistance  of  my  readers  in  this  quest.  Shall 
we  base  our  judgment  upon  the  effectiveness  in  result  of 
the  different  styles  of  delivery?  Our  choice  of  standard 
will,  then,  resolve  itself  into  a  selection  of  that  type  of 
speaking  which  attains  its  purpose,  or,  in  other  words,  is 
the  most  effective. 

May  I  cite  a  few  examples  of  delivery  in  public  speak¬ 
ing?  Each  will  vary  from  the  others.  These  examples 
will  be  included,  I  fancy,  in  the  experience  of  everyone  of 
my  readers.  Then,  shall  we  sit  in  judgment  upon  them, 
with  the  purpose  of  determining  the  correct  standard?  In 

15 


16 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


each  case,  I  shall  select  from  my  experience  an  extreme 
type,  and  I  shall  tell  you  frankly  the  effect  upon  myself. 

A  few  years  ago  I  attended  a  church  service  in  a  large 
Canadian  city,  in  which  I  happened  to  be  visiting.  The 
clergyman  appeared  to  be  more  obsessed  with  decorous¬ 
ness  than  inspired  with  spirituality.  All  his  postures, 
gestures,  and  intonations  had  been  predetermined.  Every 
circumstance  of  his  delivery  emphasized  the  principle  of 
“predestination.”  Every  detail  was  fashioned  after  what 
he  considered  good  ecclesiastical  form.  He  was  conscious 
of  his  “solemn,  mournful,  and  slow”  walk  into  the  pulpit, 
of  his  stilted  postures,  of  his  artificial  gestures,  of  his 
unreal  intonations,  even  of  his  manner  of  opening  and 
closing  the  books  and  holding  his  glasses.  I  do  not  mean 
to  say  that  this  clergyman  is  essentially  insincere.  I  know 
he  is  not.  I  do  mean  to  say,  however,  that  his  delivery, 
on  this  occasion,  was  insincere,  since  it  was  an  attempt  to 
create  an  effect  by  means  of  conscious  manipulation  of  the 
voice  and  body,  rather  than  an  immediate,  direct,  frank, 
and  true  expression  of  the  moral  and  spiritual  appeal  of 
the  sermon. 

During  one  of  the  Presidential  elections,  in  which  the 
late  President  McKinley  and  the  Hon.  William  Jennings 
Bryan  were  the  candidates,  I  was  living  in  one  of  the 
pivotal  states.  Sentiment  was,  apparently,  fairly  evenly 
divided,  with  the  result  that  the  state  was  flooded  with 
spellbinders.  I  recall  one  who  spoke  in  the  town  in  which 
I  lived.  He  was  advertised  as  the  “oratorical  tornado.” 
His  delivery  was  certainly  “cyclonic.”  He  began,  con¬ 
tinued,  and  ended  in  a  fury  of  sound  and  gesticulation. 
Illogical  in  thought,  extravagant  in  statement,  confusing 
in  sound,  bewildering  in  gesture,  the  speaker  at  first 
startled  the  attention,  then  grew  monotonous,  and  finally 
lost  the  interest  of  the  audience.  His  delivery  was  inco¬ 
herent,  distracting,  and  ineffective. 


CONVERSATIONAL  STANDARD 


17 


A  number  of  years  ago,  one  of  the  American  churches 
engaged  a  celebrated  Scotch  divine  to  conduct  evangelistic 
services  throughout  the  United  States.  He  made  his 
headquarters  at  one  of  the  denomination’s  universities 
with  which  I  was,  at  that  time,  associated.  The  faculty 
and  students  enjoyed  the  rare  privilege  of  hearing  him 
frequently  at  the  Chapel  exercises. 

I  well  remember  the  first  occasion  on  which  he  preached 
after  his  arrival.  His  fame,  as  a  pulpit  orator,  had  pre¬ 
ceded  him.  A  large  congregation  greeted  him.  I  fancy 
that  the  majority  of  them,  like  myself,  expected  to  be 
thrilled  by  his  eloquence.  We  were  thrilled,  but  not  just 
in  the  manner  we  expected.  At  all  times,  during  the 
progress  of  the  sermon,  his  delivery  was  simple,  intimate, 
intense,  conversational.  “But,”  you  will  ask,  “was  it 
effective?”  Extremely  so.  It  was  animated  and  arrest¬ 
ing,  and  being  so,  it  attracted  and  held  the  attention.  I 
remember  very  distinctly,  that  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
sermon  I  thought,  “What  a  short  sermon!”  To  my  sur¬ 
prise,  upon  looking  at  my  watch,  I  found  that  he  had 
spoken  for  an  hour.  As  you  will,  no  doubt,  assume  from 
what  I  have  written,  the  address  was  not  monotonous, 
prosy,  or  indifferent.  We  were  highly  entertained  by  his 
spontaneous  humor  and  inimitable  wit,  were  moved  by  his 
pathos,  and  aroused  through  his  righteous  indignation. 
So  clearly  was  the  matter  of  the  sermon  impressed  upon 
me,  that,  although  it  was  delivered  a  number  of  years  ago, 
I  can  readily  outline  it  now.  The  preacher  was  quite  suc¬ 
cessful  in  effecting  his  purpose.  The  purpose  of  any 
sermon  is  to  move  to  right  action.  This  particular  sermon 
was  in  the  nature  of  a  financial  appeal  for  a  worthy 
object.  The  congregation  had  never  been  known  to 
contribute  so  generously. 

I  feel  quite  certain,  that  everyone  of  my  readers  will 
agree  with  me  that,  considered  from  any  point  of  view, 


18 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


whether  of  interest,  or  charm,  or  effectiveness,  the  natural, 
conversational  standard  is  the  ideal  which  everyone,  who 
would  essay  to  speak  in  public,  should  seek  to  attain.  Of 
course,  the  ordinary  conversational  forms  that  obtain 
among  a  few,  in  the  intimate  communication  of  ideas, 
must  be  sufficiently  modified  to  adjust  them  to  a  large 
number.  This  is  done  by  accentuation  and  extension. 
The  modifications  of  ordinary  conversationalism  for  this 
adjustment  will  be  dealt  with  in  succeeding  chapters  of 
this  book. 


ASSIGNMENTS 

The  purpose  of  public  speaking  is  to  impress,  convince,  per¬ 
suade.  To  impress  whom?  The  audience.  To  convince  whom? 
The  audience.  To  persuade  whom?  The  audience.  Therefore, 
in  developing  any  assignment,  an  audience  is  presupposed.  “But,” 
you  may  interpose,  “I  cannot  always,  if  at  all,  have  an  actual 
audience  to  practice  upon.”  Granted.  However,  you  can  readily 
re-create  one  in  your  imagination.  Therefore,  apply  the  discus¬ 
sions  required  by  each  assignment,  in  connection  with  every 
chapter  to  a  real  or  imaginary  audience.  In  each  assignment 
apply  the  instruction  of  the  chapter  with  which  the  assignment 
is  associated,  and  also  that  which  has  been  derived  from  previous 
chapters. 

If  the  topic  of  any  assignment  be  not  familiar,  substitute 
another  that  will  be  so. 

I.  Read  a  story  and  tell  it  in  your  own  words. 

II.  Give  an  account  of  a  personal  experience. 

III.  Tell  a  humorous  story. 

IV.  Discuss  familiarly  some  public  question,  or  the  policies  of 
a  political  party,  or  the  oratorical  effectiveness  of  a  certain 
man. 

V.  Ponder  well  Hamlet’s  instruction  to  the  Players : 

“Speak  the  speech,  I  pray  you,  as  I  pronounced  it  to  you, 
trippingly  on  the  tongue:  but  if  you  mouth  it,  as  many  of 
your  plays  do,  I  had  as  lief  the  town  crier  spoke  my  lines. 
Nor  do  not  saw  the  air  too  much  with  your  hand,  thus; 
but  use  all  gently;  for  in  the  very  torrent,  tempest,  and, 
as  I  may  say,  whirlwind  of  your  passion,  you  must  acquire 


CONVERSATIONAL  STANDARD 


19 


and  beget  a  temperance  that  may  give  it  smoothness.  Oh, 
it  offends  me  to  the  soul  to  hear  a  robustious  periwig-pated 
fellow  tear  a  passion  to  tatters,  to  very  rags,  to  split  the 
ears  of  the  groundlings  who,  for  the  most  part,  are  capable 
of  nothing  but  inexplicable  dumb-show  and  noise :  I  would 
have  such  a  fellow  whipped  for  o’erdoing  Termagant;  it 
out-herods  Herod;  pray  you,  avoid  it. 

“Be  not  too  tame,  neither,  but  let  your  own  discretion 
be  your  tutor;  suit  the  action  to  the  word,  the  word  to  the 
action;  with  this  special  observation,  that  you  o’erstep  not 
the  modesty  of  nature:  for  anything  so  overdone  is  from 
the  purpose  of  playing,  whose  end,  both  at  the  first  and 
now,  was  and  is,  to  hold,  as  t’were,  the  mirror  up  to  na¬ 
ture;  to  show  virtue  her  own  feature,  scorn  her  own 
image,  and  the  very  age  and  body  of  the  time  his  form 
and  pressure.  Now  this  overdone  or  come  tardy  off,  though 
it  make  the  unskilful  laugh,  cannot  but  make  the  judicious 
grieve;  the  censure  of  the  which  one  must  in  your  allow¬ 
ance  o’erweigh  a  whole  theater  of  others.  Oh,  there  be 
players  that  I  have  seen  play,  and  heard  others  praise,  and 
that  highly,  not  to  speak  it  profanely,  that  neither  having 
the  accent  of  Christians  nor  the  gait  of  Christian,  pagan, 
nor  man,  have  so  strutted  and  bellowed,  that  I  have  thought 
some  of  nature’s  journeymen  had  made  men,  and  not  made 
them  well,  they  imitated  humanity  so  abominably.” 

Shakespeare . 


II 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING  A  VARIANT  OF  A  TALK 

IN  the  foregoing  chapter  I  urged  that  public  speaking 
does  not  differ  essentially  from  a  “talk.”  The  relation¬ 
ship  of  the  speaker  to  the  listeners,  the  process  of  think¬ 
ing,  and  the  expressional  form  manifested  through  the 
voice  and  body  are  the  same  in  either  case. 

But,  while  inherently  the  same,  public  speaking  is  a 
modification  of  a  “talk.”  The  basis  of  the  modification 
is  the  difference  in  the  size  of  the  audience.  In  public 
speaking  the  audience  is  larger  than  in  conversation.  As 
a  result  the  speaker  is  less  familiar,  and — if  the  reader 
will  pardon  a  redundancy — more  formal.  He  thinks  more 
intensely  in  order  that,  through  accentuation,  his  ideas 
may  be  more  intelligible  to  individuals  at  a  greater  dis¬ 
tance.  His  voice  is  amplified  and  extended  in  adjustment 
to  a  larger  space.  The  movements  of  his  hands  and  arms 
are  stretched  into  gestures,  in  adaptation  to  a  greater 
number  of  hearers,  while,  at  the  same  time,  every  phase 
of  physical  expression  is  accentuated.  In  every  case  the 
modification  is  spontaneous. 

The  following  quotation,  from  an  article  by  the  writer, 
is  appropriate  in  this  connection. 

“The  ways  and  means  adopted  by  the  ‘soap-box  orator’ 
to  attract  and  retain  a  crowd  have  always  interested  me. 
These  open-air  audiences  do  not  feel  called  upon  to  sub¬ 
scribe  to  the  rules  of  behavior  that  obtain  with  more 
formal  audiences.  As  a  result,  the  successful  speaker  of 

20 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING  A  VARIANT  OF  A  TALK  21 


this  ilk  is  compelled  to  depend  upon  his  knowledge  of 
human  nature,  his  ability  to  illustrate  from  the  experi¬ 
ences  of  his  hearers,  and  his  sensitiveness  to  the  effect  his 
ideas  produce  upon  them. 

“I  recall  a  very  successful  speaker  of  this  type.  His 
method  of  securing  and  holding  an  audience  is  original, 
sound,  and  highly  effective.  He  does  not,  as  is  customary 
with  so  many  speakers  of  this  type,  ‘yell  his  head  off’  to 
attract  a  crowd.  He  adopts  a  novel  device.  He  sits  on 
his  box  and  engages  in  intimate  and  apparently  confi¬ 
dential  conversation  with  two  or  three  others.  This,  as 
he  no  doubt  anticipates,  arouses  the  curiosity  of  those 
standing  around.  They  draw  near  to  hear  what  he  is 
talking  about.  He  includes  the  newcomers  in  his  con¬ 
versation.  Others  arrive.  The  increase  in  the  number  of 
his  hearers  makes  it  necessary  for  him  to  talk  or  converse 
more  loudly,  or,  in  other  words,  to  accentuate  his  ‘talk.’ 

“When  the  number  of  his  hearers  grows  to  about 
thirty  he  stands  up.  Why  does  he  do  this  ?  Simply  that 
he  may  see  all  his  hearers.  Now,  from  the  very  nature 
of  the  circumstances,  he  talks  more  loudly,  but  still  talks. 

“When  the  number  in  his  audience  approaches  one 
hundred  he  mounts  his  soap-box  and  talks  in  a  still  louder 
voice,  that  he  may  be  the  better  seen  and  heard.  Now  he 
is  a  public  speaker  addressing  an  audience  from  a  plat¬ 
form. 

“Thus  his  speaking  evolves  from  a  simple,  intimate 
conversation  with  one  or  two  to  a  ‘talk’  adjusted  to  a 
large  number — an  audience.  And  what  is  the  nature  of 
this  adjustment?  It  is  this,  he  stands  on  his  box  instead 
of  sitting  on  it  that  he  may  see  and  be  seen ;  and  he  talks 
more  loudly  that  he  may  be  heard.  In  other  words,  to 
adjust  his  talk  to  a  larger  audience,  or  to  make  it  conform 
to  the  new  environment  or  surroundings,  he  merely  accen¬ 
tuates  or  emphasizes  his  conversation. 

“Of  course,  in  this  adjustment  of  a  ‘talk’  to  a  large 
number,  some  of  the  extreme  intimacy  which  charac¬ 
terizes  a  conversation  with  one  or  two  is  lost.  Audience 


22 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


conditions  modify  the  close  intimacy  of  conversation  with 
a  few.  They  need  not,  and  do  not  in  the  case  cited, 
eliminate  it.  As  suggested,  they  merely  accentuate  it, 
extend  it,  modify  it.” 

Our  soap-box  orator’s  naturalness  in  delivery  is  char¬ 
acteristic  of  the  most  effective  public  speaking  of  to-day. 
Some  time  ago  public  speaking  was  declamatory  and 
grandiloquent.  When  the  orator  essayed  to  “orate”  he 
consciously  assumed  a  posture,  tone,  rhetoric,  and  manner 
that  precept  and  example  led  him  to  believe  were  befitting 
the  occasion.  All  this  is  changed.  To-day  such  delivery 
would  cause  a  smile.  Only  simple  and  direct  conver- 
sationalism,  in  style  and  language,  will  arrest  and  hold 
the  attention  of  men  in  this  day. 

Public  speaking,  then,  is  a  variant  of  a  “talk.”  This 
modification  takes  the  form  of  an  accentuated  conver¬ 
sation.  The  degree  of  accentuation  is  determined  by  the 
changing  environment.  The  changing  environment  is  the 
varying  size  of  the  audience. 

A  well-known  instructor  in  public  speaking,  who  was 
•one  of  the  first  teachers  to  recognize  the  desirability  of 
naturalness  in  delivery,  was  quite  successful  in  securing 
it  in  a  novel  but  legitimate  way.  He  would  require  the 
student,  who,  by  the  way,  had  come  to  the  recitation  with 
the  matter  thoroughly  prepared,  to  sit  and  deliver  the 
speech  conversationally  to  some  real  or  imaginary  person 
in  close  proximity.  Then  he  would  have  the  student,  still 
sitting  and  conversing,  repeat  the  process  at  increased 
distances  until  the  space  between  the  speaker  and  the 
hearer  approximated  the  distance  between  the  speaker  and 
the  hearer  in  the  last  seat  of  an  auditorium  of  ordinary 
capacity.  Then  he  would  have  the  student  stand,  and, 
using  the  “sit-down”  voice,  pass  through  the  same  proc- 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING  A  VARIANT  OF  A  TALK  23 


ess.  Thus  the  instructor  substituted  conversationalism 
for  declamation  in  public  speaking. 

ASSIGNMENTS 

I.  Explain  how  public  speaking  may  be  at  once  natural  and 
a  variant  of  conversational  speech. 

II.  Give  an  account  of  a  game,  the  advantages  of  country  life, 
some  current  event,  a  recent  accomplishment;  e.g.,  the  dis¬ 
covery  of  the  North  Pole,  to  two  listeners;  to  ten  listeners; 
to  fifty  listeners;  to  three  hundred  listeners.  Remain  seated 
during  the  speaking. 

III.  Speak  upon  the  same  or  substituted  topics  from  the  same 
intimate  attitude  toward  the  hearers,  but  from  a  standing 
position. 

IV.  Speak  intimately  and  personally  to  audiences  of  varying 
sizes,  upon  the  advantages  that  accrue  to  the  participants 
in  the  argumentation  and  exercises  of  a  debating  society. 


Ill 


NATURALNESS  AND  SIMPLICITY 

THE  reader  will  infer  from  the  preceding  chapters, 
if  he  is  convinced  that  the  conversational  standard 
is  the  correct  standard  both  in  basis  and  expression,  that 
two  of  the  outstanding  characteristics  of  delivery,  so 
based  and  so  expressed,  are  naturalness  and  simplicity. 
We  know  that  the  great  orators  of  the  present  are  free 
from  abstruseness  in  matter,  formality  in  manner,  osten¬ 
tation  in  literary  style,  and  affectation  in  delivery.  So, 
too,  were  the  greatest  orators  of  the  past,  judging  from 
examples  of  their  oratory,  biographies,  and  other  sources. 
What  could  be  more  direct  and  natural  than  the  greatest 
oration  that  we  have  inherited  from  the  past,  “The 
Oration  on  the  Crown/’  by  Demosthenes!  Trite  oratory 
is  clear,  spontaneous,  frank,  unadorned,  and  unaffected. 
In  other  words,  it  is  simple  and  natural. 

May  I  call  your  attention  to  the  supreme  exemplar  of 
simplicity  and  naturalness  among  orators  ?  He  was  called 
the  Great  Teacher.  Why  should  He  not  be  called  the 
Great  Orator?  He  spoke  in  public  and  to  multitudes, 
and  any  of  the  literary  styles  He  made  use  of  may  be 
employed  by  the  public  speaker.  You  recall  the  uncon¬ 
ventional,  conversational,  sincere,  and  intelligible  quality 
of  His  speaking,  and  the  extraordinary  effectiveness  of 
His  appeal.  May  I  cite  an  example? 

“The  same  day  went  Jesus  out  of  the  house  and  sat  by 
the  seaside.  And  great  multitudes  were  gathered  to- 

24 


NATURALNESS  AND  SIMPLICITY 


25 


gether  unto  Him,  so  that  He  went  into  a  ship  and  sat; 
and  the  whole  multitude  sat  on  the  shore.  And  He  spake 
many  things  unto  them  in  parables  saying:  Behold  a 
sower  went  forth  to  sow ;  and  when  he  sowed  some  seeds 
fell  by  the  wayside  and  the  fowls  came  and  devoured 
them  up;  some  fell  upon  stony  places  where  they  had  not 
much  earth,  and  forthwith  they  sprung  up,  because  they 
had  no  deepness  of  earth  and  when  the  sun  was  up  they 
were  scorched ;  and  because  they  had  no  root  they  withered 
away.  And  some  fell  among  thorns,  and  the  thorns 
sprung  up  and  choked  them.  But  others  fell  into  good 
ground  and  brought  forth  fruit,  some  an  hundredfold, 
some  sixtyfold,  some  thirtyfold.  Who  hath  ears  to  hear, 
let  him  hear.” 

Probably  I  may  induce  a  juster  estimate  of  simplicity 
and  naturalness  in  delivery  by  contrasting  them  with 
ostentation  and  artificiality.  The  reader  is  aware  of  the 
effectiveness  of  antithesis.  An  appreciation  of  the  desir¬ 
able  may  be  stimulated  or  accentuated  by  contrasting  it 
with  the  undesirable.  Our  estimate  of  the  purity  of  virtue 
is  enhanced  by  contrasting  it  with  the  sordidness  of  vice, 
of  the  constancy  of  faith  with  the  suspicions  of  jealousy, 
of  the  pleasures  of  hope  with  the  miseries  of  despair. 

Similarly  an  appreciation  of  naturalness  and  simplicity 
may  be  aroused  or  heightened  by  placing  them  in  contrast 
with  unreality,  artificiality,  and  pretense.  I  shall  endeavor 
to  present  this  contrast  vividly  and  forcibly  by  means  of 
illustrations. 

In  a  certain  theological  college,  in  which  it  is  my  privi¬ 
lege  to  lecture,  there  is  held  an  annual  oratorical  contest. 
The  event  is  looked  forward  to  with  great  interest.  The 
clergy  and  many  of  the  laymen  of  the  denomination 
encourage  the  students  by  their  attendance.  A  few  years 
ago  the  contest  was  presided  over  by  a  dignitary  of  the 
particular  church  that  maintains  the  college  referred  to. 


26 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


Notwithstanding  his  distinction  and  authority,  his  supe¬ 
rior  intellectual  attainment  and  high  “spiritual  endow¬ 
ment,”  he  is  simplicity  itself.  Probably  I  should  have 
said  on  account  of  them,  since  simplicity  and  true  great¬ 
ness  are  twin  brothers.  Someone  has  written,  “The 
greatest  truths  are  the  simplest  and  so  are  the  greatest 
men.” 

But  to  return  to  my  story.  This  man  addressed  the 
students  at  the  banquet  that  followed  the  annual  contest. 
He  drew  generously  from  the  rich  store  of  his  experi¬ 
ence.  He  gave  them  much  good  advice.  I  particularly 
remember  one  statement  which  I  prefer  to  give  in  his 
own  words.  It  was  this:  “Gentlemen,  if  in  your  future 
ministry,  after  preaching  a  sermon,  you  should  think 
enough  about  the  manner  of  your  delivery  to  ask  anyone 
— no  matter  how  sincerely — how  you  did,  you  will  have 
departed  that  far  from  simplicity,  naturalness,  and  sin¬ 
cerity.” 

If,  then,  you  have  a  message,  if  you  have  something  to 
say,  do  not  be  conscious  of  the  manner  of  your  delivery 
but  rather  speak  with  the  directness  and  the  simplicity 
you  would  use  in  telling  it  when  conversing  with  one 
individual. 

On  the  other  hand,  I  have  in  mind  a  certain  professional 
orator.  His  purpose  is  entertainment.  His  method  is, 
as  it  were,  a  box  of  tricks.  He  strikes  attitudes,  and 
manipulates  his  voice.  His  delivery  is  a  combination  of 
affected  gestures  and  unreal  intonations.  The  attention 
of  his  hearers  is  attracted  to  his  manner  and  not  to  his 
message.  He  is  not  simple,  natural,  purposeful,  or  sin¬ 
cere. 

Or  you  may  have  attended  some  school  function  for 
which  some  “sweet  little  miss”  had  been  selected  and  pre¬ 
pared  to  “say  a  piece.”  In  all  probability  this  prepara¬ 
tion  was  made  under  the  direction  or  one  of  the  teachers 


NATURALNESS  AND  SIMPLICITY 


27 


who  had  taken  “some  lessons  in  gestures.”  You  will 
remember  how  ridiculously  affected  the  whole  perform¬ 
ance  was — or  probably  you  will  prefer  to  forget  it.  By 
what  right  are  such  artificialities  imposed  upon  the  naive 
and  undiscriminating  simplicity  of  children? 

I  am  sure  that  anyone  who  will  take  the  trouble  to  com¬ 
pare  the  latter  two  types  of  delivery  with  that  suggested 
by  the  clergyman  in  his  address  to  the  theological  students, 
will  be  impressed  with  the  desirability  of  naturalness  and 
simplicity  in  public  speaking. 

ASSIGNMENTS 

I.  With  simple  diction  (sedulously  avoiding  slang  and  col¬ 
loquialisms),  frank  statement,  directness  in  attitude,  and 

conversational  naturalness  in  speech,  give  five-minute  talks 

on : 

(a)  Simplicity  in  delivery  in  Public  Speaking. 

(b)  The  modern  feministic  movement. 

(c)  A  contemporaneous  statesman;  e.g.,  Lloyd  George, 
Briand,  or  Woodrow  Wilson. 

(d)  Ideals. 

(g)  A  great  event  in  history. 

(h)  If  I  could  choose  my  way. 

(i)  A  personal  experience. 


IV 


PREPARATION 

IT  is  necessary  at  this  stage  to  stress  the  fact  that  the 
basis  of  effective  public  speaking  is  clear  thinking.  It 
must  be  obvious  that  clear  thinking  is  conditioned  upon 
the  preparation  and  organization  of  the  matter  by  the 
speaker  previous  to  the  time  for  his  appearance  before  an 
audience.  Such  preparation  is  quite  as  imperative  in  the 
case  of  the  serious  student  of  public  speaking  in  his  exer¬ 
cises  for  practice.  Without  the  mastery  and  systematic 
arrangement  of  his  thought,  he  cannot  possibly  make 
definite  progress. 

It  would  be  absurd  if  a  hostess,  who  had  invited  some 
friends  to  dinner,  postponed  the  preparation  of  the  meal 
until  the  guests  were  seated  at  the  table.  It  is  equally 
absurd  to  address  an  audience  without  thorough  prepara¬ 
tion. 

Preparation,  then,  is  necessary  for  effective  public 
speaking.  We  hear  much  about  impromptu  speaking.  As 
someone  has  aptly  said,  “Impromptu  speaking  is  usually 
impromptu  bosh.”  Vagueness  spells  confusion.  Clear¬ 
ness  cannot  be  derived  from  obscurity;  intelligence  from 
unintelligibility.  Before  the  speaker  steps  upon  a  plat¬ 
form  to  address  an  audience  his  purpose  should  have  been 
determined,  his  thoughts  clearly  defined  and  arranged  in 
definite  relationship  to  his  purpose  or  conclusion.  If  his 
thought  is  not  so  methodized  his  speech  represents  a  dis¬ 
arranged  jumble  of  ideas,  with  the  result  that  the  speaker’s 

28 


PREPARATION 


29 


delivery  is  unintelligible  and  the  hearer’s  listening  unin¬ 
telligent. 

A  number  of  years  ago  I  was  a  member  of  a  fishing 
party  that  set  out  for  a  certain  lake  in  the  wilds  of 
Northern  Ontario,  of  which  we  had  heard  enthusiastic 
reports.  We  arrived  in  due  time  at  the  hamlet  nearest  to 
our  objective.  Here  we  engaged  a  guide,  a  very  old 
Indian.  Our  guide  had  been  over  the  route  we  had  to 
travel,  many  times.  He  had  an  unerring  sense  of  direc¬ 
tion,  and  a  vivid  remembrance  of  the  different  points, 
trees,  bays,  etc.,  by  which  he  guided  himself.  He  was 
thoroughly  prepared.  We  reached  our  destination  without 
loss  of  time. 

Three  years  later  I  joined  another  party  bound  for  the 
same  fishing  ground.  We  arrived  at  the  same  little 
hamlet,  and  I  sought  out  the  guide  of  our  former  expedi¬ 
tion.  To  my  regret  I  was  informed  that  he  had  died 
some  months  previously.  There  were  two  others  who 
knew  the  route  but  they  were  away  with  other  fishing 
parties.  One  young  Indian  informed  us  that  he  had 
heard  the  route  described  so  frequently  that  he  felt  sure 
that  he  could  guide  us.  We  accepted  his  offer  and  set 
out.  We  had  not  gone  very  far  when  it  became  evident 
that  we  had  lost  our  way.  We  blundered  along  in  a  con¬ 
fused  fashion  for  a  short  time  and  then  returned.  Our 
youthful  guide  did  not  have  clear  images  of  the  old  man’s 
marks,  nor  a  knowledge  of  the  direction.  He  had  not 
been  over  the  route  before.  He  was  not  prepared  to  lead 
us.  His  vagueness  ended  in  confusion.  It  was  an  attempt 
of  the  blind  to  lead  the  blind. 

A  public  speaker  is  a  mental  guide.  He  leads  his  audi¬ 
ence,  step  by  step,  through  a  succession  of  ideas,  to  a 
logical  conclusion.  If  he  is  not  prepared;  if  each  of  these 
steps  or  ideas  is  not  clearly  defined;  if  his  thoughts  are 
but  vaguely  conceived;  if  the  bearing  of  the  individual 


30 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


thoughts  upon  the  conclusion  is  not  clear,  confusion  fol¬ 
lows,  he  loses  his  way,  the  purpose  of  the  speech  is  not 
achieved  and  the  result  is  disastrous. 

Assuming  that  the  basis  of  effective  public  speaking  is 
clear  thinking,  I  would  submit  for  the  consideration  of 
my  readers  the  following  elementary  method  of  securing 
the  matter  and  outlining  the  argument  of  a  speech.  There 
are  three  manifest  sources  from  which  the  public  speaker 
or  the  student  of  public  speaking  may  derive  material  for 
the  treatment  of  his  subject:  (1)  his  own  knowledge  of 
the  subject,  (2)  authorities  on  the  subject,  (3)  general 
literature  on  the  subject,  such  as  may  be  found  in  maga¬ 
zines,  newspapers,  etc.  Many  of  the  facts  he  may  possess 
in  his  own  knowledge,  or  may  secure  from  authorities  and 
general  reading,  may  not  be  relevant  to  his  purpose  in 
dealing  with  the  subject.  How,  then,  may  he  sift  the 
relevant  from  the  irrelevant?  He  should  approach  the 
consideration  of  the  facts,  statements,  opinions,  etc., 
assimilated  or  derived,  with  the  purpose  of  the  theme 
stressed  in  his  mind.  As  a  result,  what  is  relevant  will 
cohere  about  the  purpose,  as  iron  filings  seek  and  find  the 
magnet. 

Now  that  the  relevant  points  are  secured,  upon  what 
basis  Should  they  be  organized,  for  they  are  clearly  of 
unequal  values?  Upon  that  of  saliency  and  subordina¬ 
tion,  or  direct  and  indirect  applicability  to  the  purpose  of 
the  speech.  The  organization  of  the  material  of  a  speech 
would  thus  be  the  systematic  arrangement  of  the  matter, 
according  to  the  main  or  subsidiary  values  of  the  argu¬ 
ments,  facts,  judgments,  opinions,  etc.  The  main  points 
would  bear  directly  upon  the  purpose  of  the  discourse. 
The  subsidiary  points  would  apply  directly  both  to  the 
main  points,  and  thus  would  be  indirectly  pertinent  to  the 
theme.  The  subsidiary  facts,  etc.,  may,  in  their  turn,  be 
qualified  or  supported,  according  to  the  requirements  for 


PREPARATION 


31 


more  exhaustive  development  of  the  subject,  and  more 
accurate  judgment.  All  this  constitutes  the  outline  or 
brief  of  a  speech. 

The  following  is  an  abstract  scheme  for  briefing : 

Statement  of  subject  or  theme. 

I.  Main  heading  or  argument  (related  directly  to 
the  theme). 

A.  Subordinate  fact  requirements,  etc.  (re¬ 
lated  directly  to  I). 

(1)  Subsidiary  facts,  etc.  (related 
directly  to  A). 

(a)  Minor  facts,  etc.  (related 
directly  to  1). 

The  matter  in  connection  with  each  main  argument  or 
heading  should  be  similarly  outlined. 

The  assignments  of  the  synonomous  terms  “subordi¬ 
nate,”  “subsidiary,”  and  “minor”  are  purely  arbitrary. 

Of  course  there  is  no  fixed  requirement  in  the  matter 
of  supporting  facts,  opinions,  arguments,  etc.  The  exi¬ 
gency  of  convincing  the  audience  must  determine  this. 

I  shall  illustrate  by  briefing  an  excerpt  from  a  sermon 
by  Robert  Hall  on  the  Bible.  The  excerpts  and  the  brief 
are  as  follows : — 

“The  Bible  is  the  treasure  of  the  poor,  the  solace  of  the 
sick,  and  the  support  of  the  dying.  And  while  other 
books  may  amuse  and  instruct  in  a  leisure  hour,  it  is  the 
peculiar  triumph  of  that  book  to  create  light  in  the  midst 
of  darkness,  to  alleviate  the  sorrow  which  permits  of  no 
other  alleviation,  to  direct  a  beam  of  hope  to  the  heart 
which  no  other  topic  of  consolation  can  reach. 

“There  is  something  in  the  spirit  and  diction  of  the 
Bible  which  is  found  peculiarly  adapted  to  arrest  the  at¬ 
tention  of  the  plainest  and  most  uncultivated  minds.  The 
simple  structure  of  its  sentences,  combined  with  the  lofty 


32 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


spirit  of  poetry — its  familiar  allusions  to  the  scenes  of 
nature  and  the  transactions  of  common  life — the  delight¬ 
ful  intermixture  of  narration  with  the  doctrinal  and  per¬ 
ceptive  parts — and  the  profusion  of  miraculous  facts 
which  convert  it  into  a  sort  of  enchanted  ground — its  con¬ 
stant  advertence  to  the  Deity,  whose  perfections  it  renders 
almost  visible  and  palpable — unite  in  bestowing  upon  it 
an  interest  which  attaches  to  no  other  performance,  and 
which,  after  assiduous  and  repeated  perusal,  invests  it 
with  much  of  the  charm  of  novelty;  like  the  great  orb  of 
day,  at  which  we  are  wont  to  gaze  with  unabated  astonish¬ 
ment  from  infancy  to  old  age. 

“What  other  book  besides  the  Bible  could  be  heard  in 
public  assemblies  from  year  to  year,  with  an  attention 
that  never  tires,  and  an  interest  that  never  cloys?  With 
few  exceptions  let  a  portion  of  the  sacred  volume  be  re¬ 
cited  in  a  mixed  multitude,  and  though  it  has  been  heard 
a  thousand  times,  a  universal  stillness  ensues,  every  eye 
is  fixed,  and  every  ear  is  awake  and  attentive.  Select,  if 
you  can,  any  other  composition,  and  let  it  be  rendered 
equally  familiar  to  the  mind,  and  see  whether  it  will  pro¬ 
duce  this  effect.” 

SUBJECT.  The  Bible. 

I.  The  infinite  helpfulness  of  the  Bible. 

A.  The  comforter  of  the  afflicted. 

( 1 )  The  poor. 

(2)  The  sick. 

(3)  The  dying. 

B.  Affords  relief  for  spiritual  perplexity  and  dis¬ 
tress. 

( 1 )  Incomprehensible  perplexity  and  distress. 

(2)  Hopeless  grief. 

(3)  Black  despair. 

II.  The  literature  of  the  Bible  arrests  attention. 

A.  Expression  of  lofty  sentiment  in  simple  form. 

B.  Reference  to  nature  and  common  life. 


PREPARATION 


33 


C.  Variety  of  literary  styles. 

D.  Description  of  miracles. 

E.  Tangibility  of  the  Deity. 

III.  Familiarity  does  not  lessen  interest. 

A.  Bible  reading  ever  commands  respect. 

Careful  preparation  is  essential  to  the  intelligible  de¬ 
livery  of  ideas.  The  systematization  of  the  thought 
should  be  firmly  established  in  the  speaker’s  mind,  so  that, 
when  speaking,  he  can  readily  proceed  from  thought  to 
thought  through  the  sequence  of  ideas.  In  a  speech  so 
prepared  the  ideas  will  be  stressed,  in  delivery,  according 
to  their  value,  and  thus  presented  with  logical  consistency. 

ASSIGNMENTS 

I.  Outline  a  number  of  speeches. 

II.  Prepare  a  brief  for  and  deliver  a  five-minute  speech  upon! 
“The  necessity  for  preparation  in  public  speaking.” 

III.  Make  an  oral  criticism  of  a  speech  that  you  have  heard 
upon  the  basis  of  its  preparation  and  clearness.  These 
will  be  determined  by  the  readiness  and  definiteness  with 
which  the  speech  can  be  outlined. 

IV.  Outline  or  brief  and  deliver  a  ten-minute  talk  on: 

(a)  The  results  of  high  tariff. 

(b)  A  comparison  of  the  rural  conditions  of  to-day  with 
those  of  fifteen  years  ago. 

(c)  The  necessity  of  organization  among  individuals  of 
the  same  vocation,  e.g.,  the  farmers. 

(d)  The  benefits  conferred  by  scientists. 

(e)  Beneficial  results  of  travel. 

(f)  Party  government. 

(g)  Group  government. 


V 


CLEARNESS 

IN  one  of  his  most  memorable  orations  Daniel  Webster 
said,  “Clearness,  force,  and  earnestness  are  the  quali¬ 
ties  which  produce  conviction.'’  Well,  clearness  is  the 
subject  of  my  story. 

One  of  the  chief  ends  of  preparation  for  public  speak¬ 
ing  is  to  ensure  the  ready  apprehension  of  the  thought  by 
the  listener.  Consequently,  the  subject  of  this  chapter 
was  really  anticipated  in  the  previous  one.  However,  if  I 
can  succeed  in  emphasizing  the  extreme  urgency  of  clear¬ 
ness  in  public  speaking  I  am  quite  willing  to  plead  guilty 
to  the  charge  of  repetition,  and  accept  censure  therefor. 
I  shall  make,  then,  what  was  a  by-product  in  the  previous 
chapter,  the  chief  concern  in  this,  with  the  hope  that  by 
stressing  it  conspicuously,  by  presenting  it  more  vividly, 
I  can  more  completely  convince  my  reader  of  its  necessity. 

A  teacher  analyzes  a  problem  in  Arithmetic.  When 
the  solution  is  arrived  at  he  asks  the  pupil,  “Do  you  under¬ 
stand  ?”  A  man  approaches  you  with  a  business  proposi¬ 
tion.  He  explains  the  purpose  of  the  enterprise.  Then 
he  asks,  “Do  you  see?”  Or  someone  who  speaks  still  less 
formally  tells  you  a  joke,  and  then  asks,  “Do  you  get 
me?” 

“Do  you  understand?”  “Do  you  see?”  “Do  you  get 
me?”  may  each  be  interpreted  exactly  by,  “Is  it  clear  to 
you?”  Is  what  clear?  The  solution  of  the  arithmetical 
problem,  the  purpose  of  the  business  enterprise,  the  point 
of  the  joke. 


34 


CLEARNESS 


35 


Before  the  teacher  analyzes  the  problem,  or  the  business 
agent  outlines  his  proposition,  or  the  humorous  man  tells 
his  joke — if  each,  in  his  own  way,  be  effective — the 
answer  to  the  problem,  or  the  purpose  of  the  business 
enterprise,  or  the  point  of  the  joke  must  be  clear.  Each 
must  see  the  end  from  the  beginning,  must  have  in  mind 
a  single  aim.  In  other  words,  each  must,  at  the  outset 
possess  a  clear  definition  of  his  object. 

Not  only  must  each  individual  referred  to  see  the  end 
from  the  beginning,  but  he  must  have  in  mind  each  step 
or  detail  leading  from  the  beginning  to  the  end.  The 
matter  of  the  arithmetical  problem,  or  the  business  propo¬ 
sition,  or  the  joke  must  be  arranged  in  logical  sequence, 
in  a  clearly  defined  outline.  The  result  will  be  clearness. 

All  this  applies  to  public  speaking.  The  public  speaker 
must  first  ask  himself,  “What  do  I  wish  to  do?”  And 
then  select  and  arrange  his  ideas  in  the  light  of  that  pur¬ 
pose.  The  definite  conception  of  his  object,  and  the 
arrangement  of  his  ideas  according  to  that  object  make 
for  clearness. 

The  system  of  a  graded  school  affords  an  apt  illustra¬ 
tion  of  an  effective  public  speech.  The  principal  is  the 
centre  of  the  system.  Associated  with  and  subordinate 
to  him  are  the  assistant  teachers.  Subject  to  the  authority 
of  the  assistant  teachers,  and  through  them  to  the  author¬ 
ity  of  the  principal,  are  the  pupils.  Thus,  through  the 
relationship  of  the  pupils  to  the  assistant  teachers,  and  of 
all  to  the  principal,  such  a  school  represents  a  well-defined 
organization. 

The  interpretation  of  this  illustration,  as  it  applies  to  a 
speech,  must  be  obvious.  The  principal  represents  the 
subject;  the  assistant  teachers,  the  subordinate  and  re¬ 
lated  themes;  the  pupils,  the  individual  ideas  connected 
with  the  subordinate  or  minor  themes.  Thus  the  relation¬ 
ship  of  the  separate  thoughts  to  the  subordinate  themes, 


36 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


and  of  these  themes  to  the  main  subject  represents  a 
systematic,  or  orderly,  or  logical,  or  clear  organization  of 
ideas. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  disorder  and  tumult,  when  dis¬ 
cipline  is  temporarily  suspended  in  a  school,  such  as  I 
have  described — for  instance,  during  an  intermission — 
suggest  the  lack  of  clearness  in  the  thought  of  a  speech, 
that  is  without  purpose  or  order  or  system  or  logical 
outline. 

Organization  of  ideas,  that  is  the  lucid  definition  of 
the  object,  and  the  selection  and  arrangement  of  ideas 
according  to  that  object,  is  as  essential  to  clear  and  effec¬ 
tive  public  speaking,  as  system  is  to  a  successful  business, 
a  well-conducted  educational  institution,  or  a  prosperous 
agricultural  enterprise. 

Clearness  in  thinking  is  a  most  important  factor  in  con¬ 
vincing  delivery,  since  it  is  the  basis  of  emphasis.  The 
correct  systematization  of  ideas  demands  a  definite  con¬ 
ception  of  each  idea.  The  definite  conception  of  each  idea 
is  revealed,  in  expression,  by  means  of  the  emphatic  word, 
and  the  relative  importance  of  the  idea  by  the  degree  of 
the  emphasis.  The  effect  of  clearness  on  delivery  is  more 
fully  dealt  with  in  the  chapter  “How  to  emphasize  the 
important  words.” 


ASSIGNMENTS 

I.  Prepare  an  outline  in  each  of  the  following  subjects  as 
required.  Make  the  outline  the  basis  of  your  talk  or  sketch, 
(a)  Description  of  a  battle  in  the  Great  War,  in  which 
the  (Canadian)  army  was  engaged. 

1.  Position  of  Canadians. 

(a)  In  relation  to  the  Allies. 

(b)  Geographical  location. 

2.  Position  of  enemy. 

3.  Object  of  the  Canadians. 

4.  Tactics  adopted  by  Canadians. 

5.  Tactics  adopted  by  the  enemy. 


CLEARNESS 


37 


6.  Details  of  battle. 

7.  Result. 

(b)  THE  IRISH  QUESTION. 

1.  Early  relations  of  England  and  Ireland. 

(a)  Subjugation  by  Henry  II. 

(b)  Events  connected  with  assumption  of  the  title 
of  “King  of  Ireland”  by  Henry  VIII. 

(c)  The  so-called  “Plantation  of  Ulster”  under 
James  I. 

(d)  Struggle  between  James  II  and  William  III 
and  Mary,  and  results  to  Ireland. 

(e)  Uprising  of  1798. 

2.  “Final  Union”  with  Great  Britain  in  1800. 

(a)  Revolution  of  1848. 

(b)  Formation  of  Fenian  Brotherhood. 

3.  Formation  of  Irish  Home-rule  party  in  1873. 

(a)  History  of  various  home-rule  bills. 

4.  Sinn  Fein  movement. 

(a)  Condition  in  Ireland  preceding  signing  of 
treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  Irish  Free 
State. 

(b)  Conclusion  of  treaty. 

5.  Attitude  of  Ulster. 

(a)  Terms  of  treaty. 

II.  Treat  similarly: 

(a)  The  granting  of  franchise  and  parliamentary 
rights  to  women. 

(b)  Nationalist  agitation  in  India. 

(c)  Good  roads. 

(d)  Status  of  Canada  in  British  Empire. 


VI 


CONCENTRATION  FOR  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


HE  basis  of  effective  public  speaking  is  clear  think- 


I  ing.  The  process  of  thinking  represents  a  sys¬ 
tematic  series  of  concentrations.  The  fundamental  action 
of  the  mind,  then,  in  public  speaking,  or  for  that  matter, 
in  any  other  form  which  the  oral  communication  of  ideas 
may  take,  is  concentration  and  transition.  Since  this  is 
the  case,  the  student  of  public  speaking  cannot  avoid  the 
examination  of  the  action  of  the  mind  in  thinking  in 
order  to  determine  the  basis  of  the  art  of  oratory. 

The  action  of  the  mind  in  thinking  resembles  the  pro¬ 
pulsion  of  a  locomotive.  The  latter  is  driven  forward  by 
a  series  of  compressions  and  expansions  of  the  steam.  In 
the  case  of  the  mind,  substitute  concentration  for  com¬ 
pression,  and  transition  for  expansion.  In  the  process  of 
thinking,  the  mind  moves  forward  to  the  desired  con¬ 
clusion,  by  centering  or  focusing  or  concentrating  upon 
one  idea,  and  then  leaping  or  making  a  transition  to  the 
next. 

Probably  the  rhythmic  action  of  the  mind  in  thinking 
is  more  aptly  illustrated  in  the  following  quotation  from 
an  article  I  wrote  some  time  ago,  on  the  oral  interpreta¬ 
tion  of  literature :  “One  of  the  essential  characteristics  of 
mental  activity,  and  therefore  of  expression,  is  movement. 
It  is  a  rhythmic  rather  than  a  monotonously  flowing 
movement.  That  is,  it  is  from  centre  to  centre.  To 
illustrate,  this  mental  movement  does  not  resemble  the 
continuously  regular  flowing  of  the  water  in  a  river  with 


38 


CONCENTRATION  FOR  PUBLIC  SPEAKING  39 


comparatively  straight  banks,  but  rather,  the  movement 
of  the  water  in  a  tortuous  river.  In  the  latter  case,  there 
is  a  continuous  and  irregular  flowing,  centering,  and  dis¬ 
solving  of  the  water,  as  it  runs  to  the  succession  of 
centres.  It  will  be  observed,  that  at  no  time  is  the  water 
static.  So  it  is  in  the  mental  process.  The  mind,  in  ex¬ 
pression,  as  under  all  other  circumstances  of  its  function¬ 
ing,  is  never  static.  It  moves  continuously  and  rhythmic¬ 
ally  from  centre  to  centre.  In  the  interpretation  of  litera¬ 
ture,  or  public  speaking,  or  any  other  form,  which  the 
oral  communication  of  ideas  may  take,  each  centre  repre¬ 
sents  a  concentration  upon  a  thought.  This  mental  activ¬ 
ity  or  process,  which  is  the  basis  of  expression,  is  one  of 
rhythmic  movement,  of  concentration  and  transition.” 

Suppose  one  person  were  to  tell  another,  “J°lm  left  for 
New  York  to-day.  He  travelled  by  the  Lehigh  railroad. 
While  in  New  York  he  will  transact  some  business,  and 
will  return  in  a  fortnight.”  The  minds  of  the  speaker 
and  the  person  spoken  to  would  concentrate  upon  John’s 
departure;  then,  upon  the  railroad  over  which  he  jouney- 
ed;  after  that,  upon  his  purpose;  and  finally,  upon  the 
duration  of  his  absence. 

One  may  have  two  immediate  objects  in  focusing 
upon  a  succession  of  ideas.  There  may  be  the  aim  of 
working  out  the  sequence  of  thoughts,  and  reaching  the 
conclusion  for  oneself,  as  in  the  case  of  the  student;  or, 
on  the  other  hand,  for  others,  as  in  the  case  of  the  public 
speaker.  At  this  point,  I  wish  to  re-emphasize  the  fact 
that  the  former  purpose  is  necessary  to  the  latter.  The 
one  is  a  preparation  for  the  other. 

The  theme  of  this  chapter  is  concentration  for  public 
speaking,  that  is  concentration  upon  each  of  a  succession 
of  ideas,  with  the  purpose  of  impressing  it  upon  others. 
Through  his  delivery  the  speaker  seeks  to  fix  certain 
thoughts  in  the  minds  of  his  hearers.  His  concern  is 


40 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


to  impart  effectively  to  others,  not  to  acquire  himself. 
The  latter  he  has  done  already  in  his  private  study. 

The  attitude  of  the  teacher  toward  his  pupils  resembles 
the  relationship  of  the  public  speaker  to  his  audience. 
May  I  use  a  very  elementary  example?  A  teacher  wishes 
to  lead  some  children  to  understand  that  2  +  2  =  4.  He 
may  proceed  after  this  fashion :  he  holds  up  two  sticks, 
and  calls  attention  to  them,  repeats  the  process  with  two 
others,  then  places  them  all  together  and  focuses  the 
attention  upon  the  result.  Thus,  at  the  time  of  teaching, 
the  teacher  concentrates  upon  his  ideas  by  concentrating 
the  minds  of  his  pupils  upon  them. 

The  concentration  of  the  speaker  upon  his  thought, 
before  an  audience,  is  much  the  same,  in  purpose  and 
attitude,  as  that  of  the  teacher  before  his  pupils.  The 
public  speaker  should  appear  before  his  hearers  with  well- 
defined  ideas.  He  should  not  concentrate  upon  them  for 
himself,  as  does  the  student.  This  is  unnecessary.  He 
has  already  done  it  in  his  preparation.  Instead,  he  should 
centre  or  concentrate  his  hearers’  minds  upon  each 
thought;  call  their  attention  to,  or  arrest  it,  with  each 
idea.  His  concentration  upon  his  thoughts  is  now  by 
way  of  the  minds  of  his  hearers. 

Concentration  for  public  speaking,  then,  differs  from 
or  is  a  variant  of  concentration  for  oneself.  The  public 
speaker  simply  places  himself  in  the  attitude  of  calling  the 
attention  of  his  hearers  to  the  succession  of  ideas,  one  by 
one;  or  of  centering  their  minds  upon  each  before  pro¬ 
ceeding  to  the  next.  Thus,  he  grips  the  attention  of  his 
audience  and  leads  it,  step  by  step,  to  his  conclusion. 

ASSIGNMENTS 

Make  a  brief  of  your  treatment  of  each  of  the  following 
subjects.  Then,  in  the  process  of  the  delivery  of  the  ideas 
organized  in  the  outline,  concentrate  the  minds  of  your  real  or 


CONCENTRATION  FOR  PUBLIC  SPEAKING  41 


imaginary  hearers  upon  each  idea  by  calling  their  attention  to, 
or  focusing  it  upon  it. 

(a)  How  to  concentrate  when  speaking. 

(b)  Municipal  ownership  of  public  utilities. 

(c)  Labor  unions. 

(d)  Consolidated  schools  in  rural  communities. 

(e)  Advertising. 


VII 


HOW  TO  INTEREST  AN  AUDIENCE 

TO  be  effective,  a  speaker  must  interest  his  hearers 
in  the  matter  of  his  speech.  What  are  the  most 
efficient  means  that  may  be  employed  to  secure  the 
attention  of  an  audience?  I  shall  suggest  the  answer  by 
illustrations  and  examples. 

One  man  tells  another  about  his  automobile.  We  shall 
assume  that  the  listener  has  the  vaguest  knowledge  of  the 
parts  of  a  car.  The  owner  discusses  them  with  great 
fluency.  The  recipient  of  all  this  information  is  bored. 
His  interest  is  not  aroused.  He  does  not  understand  the 
meaning  of  the  terms  used.  They  are  outside  his  ex¬ 
perience. 

I  tell  a  friend  that  a  mutual  acquaintance  is  afflicted 
with  vertigo.  He  turns  a  blank  look  upon  me.  He  does 
not  understand.  True,  the  novelty  of  the  term  may 
excite  his  curiosity,  but  he  is  not  intelligently  interested. 
Why?  Because  I  am  unintelligible.  The  word  “vertigo” 
is  unknown  to  him. 

But,  when  I  tell  my  friend  that  a  mutual  acquaintance 
is  troubled  with  dizziness,  he  understands  me.  He  is 
intelligently  interested.  Why  ?  Because  I  am  intelligible. 
The  word  “dizziness”  is  within  his  experience.  It  is 
known  to  him. 

We  counsel  children,  “All  is  not  gold  that  glitters.” 
Our  caution  makes  no  impression.  It  is  too  abstract. 
They  do  not  comprehend  its  import.  They  are  not  in¬ 
terested. 


42 


HOW  TO  INTEREST  AN  AUDIENCE 


43 


But  when  we  relate  to  children  the  story,  “King  Midas 
and  the  Golden  Touch,”  we  refer  to  concrete  ideas  within 
their  experience.  We  have  become  intelligible.  Their 
interest  has  been  secured. 

The  great  orator,  Edmund  Burke,  in  his  famous  ora¬ 
tion  at  the  trial  of  Warren  Hastings,  aroused  the  interest 
of  his  hearers  by  referring  to  ideas  and  images  within 
their  vivid  evperience.  He  did  not  refer  to  the  invasion 
of  the  Carnatic  as  a  “scene  of  woe,”  and  leave  it  at  that. 
That  would  have  stimulated  only  a  vague  interest.  In¬ 
stead  he  said,  “Then  ensued  a  scene  of  woe,  the  like  of 
which  no  eye  had  seen,  no  heart  conceived,  and  of  which 
no  tongue  can  adequately  tell.  A  storm  of  universal  fire 
blasted  every  field,  consumed  every  house,  destroyed 
every  temple.  The  miserable  inhabitants,  flying  from 
their  flaming  villages,  in  part  were  slaughtered.  Others, 
without  regard  to  sex,  to  age,  to  respect  of  rank,  or 
sacredness  of  function — fathers  torn  from  children, 
husbands  from  wives,  enveloped  in  a  whirlwind  of  cav¬ 
alry,  and  amid  the  goading  spears  of  drivers  and  the 
trampling  of  pursuing  horses — were  swept  into  captivity 
in  an  unknown  and  hostile  land.”  Thus,  Burke,  by  a 
vivid  appeal  to  the  imagination  of  his  listeners  led  them 
to  recreate  the  scenes  of  desolation  and  woe  out  of  their 
experience,  and  aroused  their  intense  indignation  towards 
Hastings  and  his  policies  in  India. 

The  following  extract  from  an  oration  delivered  by  the 
great  Southern  orator,  Henry  W.  Grady,  must  appeal  to 
and  arouse  the  interest  of  anyone  who  enjoys  the  dis¬ 
tinction  of  having  been  reared  on  a  farm:  “I  went  to 
Washington  the  other  day,  and  I  stood  on  the  Capitol 
Hill;  my  heart  beat  quick  as  I  looked  at  the  towering 
marble  of  my  country’s  Capitol  and  the  mist  gathered  in 
my  eyes  as  I  thought  of  its  tremendous  significance,  and 
the  armies  and  the  treasury,  and  the  judges  and  the 


44 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


President,  and  the  Congress  and  the  courts,  and  all  that 
was  gathered  there.  And  I  felt  that  the  sun  in  all  its 
course  could  not  look  down  on  a  better  sight  than  that 
majestic  home  of  a  republic  that  had  taught  the  world 
its  best  lesson  of  liberty.  And  I  felt  that  if  honor  and 
wisdom  and  justice  abided  therein,  the  world  would  at 
least  owe  that  great  house  in  which  the  ark  of  the  cove¬ 
nant  of  my  country  is  lodged  its  final  uplifting  and  regen¬ 
eration. 

“Two  days  afterward,  I  went  to  visit  a  friend  in  the 
country,  a  modest  man,  with  a  quiet  country  home.  It 
was  just  a  simple,  unpretentious  house,  set  about  with 
big  trees,  encircled  in  meadow  and  field  rich  with  the 
promise  of  harvest.  The  fragrance  of  the  pink  and  holly¬ 
hock  in  the  front  yard  was  mingled  with  the  aroma  of 
the  orchard  and  of  the  gardens,  and  resonant  with  the 
cluck  of  poultry  and  the  hum  of  bees. 

“Inside  was  quiet,  cleanliness,  thrift,  and  comfort. 
There  was  the  old  clock  that  had  welcomed,  in  steady 
measure,  every  newcomer  to  the  family,  that  had  ticked 
the  solemn  requiem  of  the  dead,  and  had  kept  company 
with  the  watchers  at  the  bedside.  There  were  the  big 
restful  beds,  and  the  old  open  fireplace,  and  the  old 
family  Bible,  thumbed  with  the  fingers  of  hands  long 
since  still,  and  wet  with  the  tears  of  eyes  long  since  closed, 
holding  the  simple  annals  of  the  family  and  the  heart  and 
the  conscience  of  the  home. 

“Outside,  there  stood  my  friend,  the  master,  a  simple, 
upright  man,  with  no  mortgage  on  his  roof,  no  lien  on 
his  growing  crops,  master  of  his  land,  and  master  of 
himself.  There  was  his  old  father,  an  aged,  trembling 
man,  but  happy  in  the  heart  and  home  of  his  son.  And 
as  they  started  to  their  home,  the  hands  of  the  old  man 
went  down  on  the  young  man’s  shoulder,  laying  there  the 
unspeakable  blessing  of  the  honored  and  grateful  father 


HOW  TO  INTEREST  AN  AUDIENCE 


45 


and  ennobling  it  with  the  knighthood  of  the  fifth  com¬ 
mandment. 

“And  as  they  reached  the  door  the  old  mother  came  in 
with  the  sunset  falling  on  her  face,  and  lighting  up  her 
deep,  patient  eyes,  while  her  lips,  trembling  with  the  rich 
music  of  her  heart,  bade  her  husband  and  son  welcome  to 
their  home.  Beyond  was  the  housewife  busy  with  her 
household  cares,  clean  of  heart  and  conscience,  the  buckler 
and  helpmeet  of  her  husband.  Down  the  lane  came  the 
children,  trooping  home  after  the  cows,  seeking  as  truant 
birds  do  the  quiet  of  their  home  nest. 

“And  I  saw  the  night  come  down  on  that  house,  falling 
gently  as  the  wings  of  the  unseen  dove.  And  the  old 
man — while  a  startled  bird  called  from  the  forest,  and 
the  trees  were  shrill  with  the  crickets  cry,  and  the  stars 
were  swarming  in  the  sky — got  the  family  around  him, 
and,  taking  the  old  Bible  from  the  table,  called  them  to 
their  knees,  the  little  baby  hiding  in  the  folds  of  its 
mother’s  dress,  while  he  closed  the  record  of  that  simple 
day  by  calling  down  God’s  benediction  on  that  family  and 
on  that  home.  And  while  I  gazed,  the  vision  of  that 
marble  Capitol  faded.  Forgotten  were  its  treasures  and 
its  majesty,  and  I  said,  ‘Oh,  surely  in  the  homes  of  the 
people  are  lodged  at  last  the  strength  and  the  responsi¬ 
bility  of  this  government,  the  hope  and  the  promise  of 
this  republic.’  ” 

The  conclusion  of  the  matter  is,  that  the  speaker,  in 
order  to  secure  the  interest  of  his  listeners,  must  present 
ideas  adjusted  to  their  experience.  What  constitutes  the 
experience  of  an  individual?  Someone  has  summed  it  up 
well  as  follows,  “All  that  he  retains  from  what  he  has 
seen,  heard,  read,  done,  and  felt.” 

The  public  speaker  must  discriminate  in  the  matter  of 
the  experience  of  a  given  audience.  It  would  be  idle  to 
address  a  metropolitan  city  audience  in  the  terms  of  rural 


46 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


experience.  It  would  be  equally  futile  to  speak  to  a  rural 
audience  in  terms  of  urban  experience.  The  speaker 
must  seek  to  bring  his  ideas  and  language  within  the 
vivid  experience  of  those  who  constitute  his  audience,  if 
he  would  interest  them. 

ASSIGNMENTS 

I.  Discuss  each  of  the  following  subjects  under  three  head¬ 
ings,  and  support  each  point  by  a  reference  to  experience: 

(a)  Aerial  navigation. 

(b)  Corporal  punishment  for  public  school  children. 

(c)  Compulsory  military  drill  in  the  public  schools. 

(d)  Fiction  reading. 

II.  Discuss  the  tariff  with  the  following  audiences,  and  under 

four  headings,  and  support  each  point  by  a  reference  to 

the  experience  of  the  hearers : 

(a)  Manufacturers. 

(b)  Laborers. 

(c)  Farmers. 


VIII 


HOW  TO  GAIN  AND  HOLD  ATTENTION 

COMPARATIVELY  few  public  speakers  succeed  in 
gaining  and  holding  the  attention  of  an  audience. 
If  the  subject  matter  of  a  speech  is  interesting,  the  reason 
for  this  failure  is  the  inability  of  the  speaker  to  fit  in  to 
public  speaking  conditions. 

May  I  make  a  comparison?  In  life  there  are  many 
who  do  not  fit  in — who  are  failures.  There  is  the  “shift¬ 
less  romanticist,”  who  longs  for  the  time  “when  swords 
were  bright  and  steeds  were  prancing” ;  the  pessimist, 
who  “grouches”  about  the  degeneracy  of  the  present,  and 
yearns  for  “the  good  old  days” ;  the  impractical  idealist, 
who  “talks  and  talks  and  talks”  about  some  impossible 
Utopia,  instead  of  “getting  busy.”  These  men  are  mis¬ 
fits.  They  do  not  fit  in,  or,  in  other  words,  re-act  to  their 
environments. 

As  in  life,  so  it  is  in  public  speaking,  which,  after  all, 
is  a  slice  of  life  raised  into  the  high  light.  He,  who 
would  speak  effectively  in  public,  must  learn  to  adjust 
himself  to  his  audience,  the  public  speaker’s  environment. 
If  he  cannot  do  this,  he  does  not  fit  in,  he  is  an  oratorical 
misfit.  If  he  can  do  it,  he  will  gain  and  hold  the  atten¬ 
tion  of  his  audience. 

There  are  different  types  of  public  speaking  misfits  or 
failures.  I  recall  a  case  in  point.  A  gentleman  of  wide 
reputation  as  a  scholar  and  writer  was  engaged  to  give 
an  address,  at  an  important  function  in  a  town,  in  which 
I  lived.  A  large  audience  gathered  to  hear  the  speaker. 

47 


48 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


He  responded  to  a  very  generous  reception,  with  a  cold 
and  perfunctory  acknowledgment.  He  began  by  dashing 
cold  water,  as  it  were,  on  our  enthusiasm.  He  proceeded 
to  discuss  the  subject  in  a  detached  way.  He  isolated 
himself  from  his  hearers.  He  was,  as  one  “marooned” 
on  the  platform.  Undoubtedly,  he  had  something  to  say, 
but  he  did  not  say  it  to  anybody.  There  was  no  reciproc¬ 
ity  between  him  and  his  audience.  He  did  not  gain  and 
hold  attention.  He  failed. 

Another  public  speaking  misfit  is  the  loud,  noisy,  de¬ 
clamatory  speaker.  He  does  not  relate  himself  to  his 
audience,  but  stands  isolated  in  the  centre  of  his  own 
“sound  and  fury.”  He  “kicks  up”  such  a  cloud  of  oratori¬ 
cal  “dust,”  that  he  is,  as  it  were,  hidden  from  his  listen¬ 
ers.  He  harangues  at  them.  He  does  not  talk  to  them. 
He  never  gains,  and,  consequently,  does  not  hold  at¬ 
tention. 

What,  then,  is  the  nature  of  the  attitude  of  the  speaker 
to  his  hearers,  that  enables  him  to  gain  and  hold  their 
attention?  Before  I  answer  this  question,  I  will  digress 
to  describe  as  precisely  as  I  can,  the  constitution  of  an 
audience,  and  the  effect  of  concentration  and  transition  in 
thinking,  upon  the  relationship  of  the  speaker  to  his 
listeners. 

Very  many  public  speakers  regard  their  hearers  as  a 
mass.  This  is  fatal  to  effectiveness.  Such  speakers  lose 
touch  with  the  individual  members  of  the  audience,  and 
speak  to  them  in  the  aggregate.  As  a  result,  the  delivery 
becomes  general,  impersonal,  and  detached,  or  degenerates 
into  a  harangue. 

Properly  conceived,  an  audience  is  a  unity,  that  is,  a 
number  of  separate  individuals  related  to  a  central  person. 
So  far  as  the  speaker  is  concerned,  the  centre  of  the 
audience  unity,  at  any  given  moment,  is  that  person  to 
whom  the  speaker  is  directly  appealing,  or  whose  atten- 


HOW  TO  GAIN  AND  HOLD  ATTENTION  49 


tion  he  is  concentrating  upon  the  idea  he  is  endeavoring 
to  convey.  With  each  leap  of  mind  from  idea  to  idea, 
that  has  been  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  concentration, 
the  attention  of  the  speaker  changes  from  one  individual 
in  the  audience  to  another.  Consequently,  the  audience 
centre  is  continually  changing.  Under  these  conditions 
of  delivery,  the  speaker  is  always  intimate,  since  he  ap¬ 
pears  primarily  to  one  person.  Notwithstanding  that  his 
appeal  is  primarily  to  one  person,  the  speaker  who  has  a 
true  realization  of  correct  audience  relationship,  is  aware 
that  he  is  speaking  through  the  single  individual,  who 
may  be  the  centre  at  a  given  moment,  to  every  other  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  audience.  This  realization  compels  the  atten¬ 
tion  of  all  his  hearers. 

Probably,  I  can  suggest  more  clearly  by  an  illustration 
my  conception  of  what  constitutes  the  attitude  of  the 
speaker  to  his  hearers,  that  enables  him  to  gain  and  hold 
their  attention.  Not  long  ago,  I  listened  to  a  student 
preacher,  who  seemed  to  have  solved  the  problem.  No 
matter  where  his  attention  was  directed  during  the  de¬ 
livery  of  his  sermon,  and  it  changed  very  frequently — 
with  every  new  idea,  in  fact — he  talked  personally  and 
intimately  with  one  individual.  At  the  same  time,  he 
appeared  to  realize  that  he  was  talking  to  every  other 
member  of  the  congregation.  He  did  not  single  out  one 
person  and  talk  to  him  to  the  exclusion  of  the  others. 
Rather,  he  spoke  through  one,  to  all.  While  he  was 
intimate,  personal,  and  conversational,  his  realization  that 
he  was  speaking  to  everybody,  naturally  resulted  in  the 
inclusion  of  all,  in  his  appeal.  Thus  by  directness  and 
inclusiveness,  he  compelled  the  attention  of  everybody. 

The  student  preacher  gained  and  held  attention,  as 
every  other  speaker  must  secure  and  retain  it,  by  relating 
himself  to  his  hearers,  and  thus,  fitting  into  the  public 
speaking  environment. 


50 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


ASSIGNMENTS 

* 

I.  Assuming  the  correct  relationship  towards  the  audience, 
i.e.,  regarding  the  audience  as  an  unity,  allowing  the  atten¬ 
tion  to  change  and  re-center  with  each  new  idea,  and 
calling  the  attention  of  the  individual  who  constitutes  the 
center  of  the  audience,  at  any  given  moment,  to  the  idea, 
and  through  him  the  attention  of  the  whole  audience, 
speak  upon  the  following  themes: 

(a)  The  future  of  Canada. 

(b)  The  public  school  curriculum  of  studies  should  be  so 
comprehensive,  and  the  right  of  selection  so  wide, 
that  the  course  of  study  in  any  school  will  be  based 
upon  the  conditions  of  the  community  in  which  the 
school  is  situated. 

(c)  A  thrilling  experience. 

(d)  Municipal  government  by  commission. 


IX 


PAUSING 

OWING  to  their  inability  to  discriminate,  children 
have  much  that  is  absurd  and  trivial  imposed  upon 
them.  I  recall  having  been  taught  reading  in  the  public 
schools  according  to  these  rules;  pause  while  you  count 
one  for  a  comma,  two  for  a  semi-colon,  three  for  a  colon, 
and  four  for  a  period.  In  case  a  pupil  neglected  to  apply 
any  of  these  rules,  he  received  the  number  of  whacks 
with  a  pointer,  that  corresponded  to  the  number  of  counts 
required  by  the  broken  rule.  Needless  to  say  we  were 
always  particularly  careful  about  our  periods.  Thus,  the 
teacher  referred  to  focused  the  minds  of  the  children 
upon  these  artificial  and  ridiculous  rules  for  pausing 
rather  than  upon  the  ideas  the  words  conveyed. 

My  reader  may  not  have  had  the  rules  for  pausing  im¬ 
pressed  upon  him  as  drastically  as  I  had.  Nevertheless,  I 
feel  safe  in  assuming  that  he  was  required  to  guide  him¬ 
self  in  reading  by  similar,  stupid  nonsense.  If  not,  he 
was  fortunate. 

Then,  as  you  may  anticipate,  I  am  not  going  to  offer 
any  rules  to  guide  the  public  speaker  in  making  pauses. 
An  attempt  to  govern  oneself  by  rules  always  results  in 
artificiality  and  self-consciousness.  It  takes  the  attention 
of  the  speaker  from  what  he  is  saying  and  places  it  upon 
how  he  is  saying  it.  The  purpose  of  public  speaking  is 
to  communicate  ideas,  not  to  parade  artificial  manipula¬ 
tion  of  the  voice. 

Nevertheless,  pausing  is  of  great  consequence  in  public 

51 


52 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


speaking.  There  is  a  frequently  quoted  proverb  which 
runs  thus,  “Speech  is  silvern,  Silence  is  golden.”  In  refer¬ 
ence  to  this  dictum,  some  one  has  aptly  written,  “If  in 
applying  this  proverb  to  speechmaking,  you  will  inter¬ 
pret  silence  as  pausing,  then  it  is  certainly  golden.” 

Frequently  natural  pausing  is  one  of  the  most  char¬ 
acteristic  factors  of  the  speech  form  of  conversation. 
Assuming  that  the  conversational  standard  is  the  correct 
standard,  pausing  should  be,  tljen,  one  of  the  important 
distinctions  of  effective  public  speaking.  And  it  is. 

Since  pausing  is  natural  to  speech,  it  must  arise  spon¬ 
taneously  from  certain  processes  and  conditions.  By  dis¬ 
covering  and  applying  these  processes  and  conditions,  we 
can  ensure  spontaneous  pausing,  which,  as  has  been  in¬ 
ferred,  is  inherent  to  natural  speech  form. 

If  you  will  listen  attentively  to  anyone  in  ordinary 
conversation  telling  of  some  experience,  you  will  notice 
that  he  utters  his  words  in  groups,  not  in  a  continuous 
stream.  For  instance,  in  narrating  the  details  of  the  fol¬ 
lowing  incident,  the  words  group  naturally,  as  I  have  indi¬ 
cated  :  (“On  my  way  downtown  to-day)  (I  saw  a  collis¬ 
ion  between  a  street  car  and  an  automobile.)  (The  auto¬ 
mobile  was  badly  damaged.)  (The  chauffeur  was  thrown 
to  the  pavement)  (and  badly  injured)  (A  passing  motor¬ 
ist  took  him  to  a  hospital)  (I  see,  by  this  evening’s  paper, 
he  was  not  seriously  injured.”) 

Now,  how  are  the  words  separated  and  united  into 
groups?  By  pauses.  Where  are  these  pauses  located? 
Before  and  after  each  group.  What  does  each  group  of 
words  convey?  An  idea.  There  is  a  pause,  then,  before 
and  after  the  expression  of  each  idea?  Yes. 

In  conversation,  public  speaking,  or  in  any  other  form 
of  the  natural,  oral  communication  of  ideas,  there  is  a 
pause  before  and  after  the  expression  of  each  idea.  Now, 


PAUSING 


53 


why  is  this?  Well,  there  is  the  speaker,  and  the  person 
spoken  to.  Time  is  required  to  develop  an  idea.  Time  is 
required  to  grasp  an  idea.  The  speaker  has  to  concen¬ 
trate  to  get  each  thought.  This  requires  time — a  pause 
before  the  utterance  of  the  group  of  words.  He  natur¬ 
ally  desires  that  the  hearer  shall  grasp  each  idea.  This 
requires  time — a  pause  after  the  utterance  of  each  group 
of  words.  Thus,  “the  speaker  requires  time  to  think  of 
what  is  to  be  said,  and  the  audience  requires  time  to  think 
of  what  has  been  said.” 

The  length  of  a  pause  depends  upon  the  length  of  time 
required  by  the  speaker  to  develop  an  idea,  or  by  the 
hearer  to  comprehend  it.  This  leads  naturally  to  the 
question  of  the  modification  of  pauses.  The  speaker  can 
modify  his  pauses,  that  is,  he  can  lengthen  or  shorten 
them.  He  can  lengthen  the  pauses  before  each  group  of 
words  by  concentrating  more  intensely  and  sustainedly 
upon  each  idea  before  giving  expression  to  it.  He  can 
lengthen  the  pause  after  each  group  of  words  by  concen¬ 
trating  the  minds  of  the  hearers  more  intensely  and  sus¬ 
tainedly  upon  the  idea  after  he  has  given  expression  to  it. 
The  opposite  process  would  shorten  the  pauses. 

Although  pauses  can  be  modified  by  lengthening  or 
shortening  upon  the  basis  of  more  accentuated  or  less 
accentuated  concentration,  they  cannot  be  legitimately  in¬ 
creased  or  decreased  in  number. 

There  are  subtle  pauses  within  the  groups  of  words. 
The  most  important  of  these  are  located  before  and  after 
the  emphatic  words.  These  pauses,  also,  are  made  spon¬ 
taneously  in  any  style  of  natural  speech. 

Should  any  of  my  readers  fear  monotony  on  account 
of  frequently  pausing,  let  me  ask,  “Have  you  ever  ex¬ 
perienced  anything  so  monotonous  as  an  endless  ‘ready 
and  steady’  stream  of  words?” 


54 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


ASSIGNMENTS 

I.  They  (Rome  and  Carthage)  measure  each  other  from  head 
to  foot.  |  They  gather  all  their  forces.  |  Gradually  the  war 
kindles.  |  The  world  takes  fire.  |  These  colossal  powers  are 
locked  in  deadly  strife.  |  Carthage  has  crossed  the  Alps;  | 
Rome,  the  seas.  |  The  two  nations  |  personified  in  two 
men,  |  Hannibal  and  Scipio,  |  close  with  each  other, 
wrestle,  |  and  grow  infuriate.  |  The  duel  is  desperate.  |  It 
is  a  struggle  for  life.  |  Rome  wavers.  |  She  utters  that  cry 
of  anguish,  |  “Hannibal  at  the  gates !”  |  But  she  rallies,  | 
collects  all  her  strength  fo**  one  last,  appalling  effort,  j 
throws  herself  upon  Carthage,  |  and  sweeps  her  from  the 
face  of  the  earth. — Victor  Hugo. 

In  the  quotation  from  Hugo’s  “Rome  and  Carthage,” 
pause  before  each  thought  phrase,  which  is  indicated  by 
a  stroke,  until  the  image,  or  idea,  is  assimilated.  Then, 
while  giving  expression  to  the  phrase,  relate  the  minds  of 
the  hearers  or  call  their  attention  to  it.  Pause  slightly 
after  the  utterance  of  each  phrase,  that  the  listeners  may 
more  fully  grasp  the  thought. 

II.  Repeat  the  process  outlined  in  I,  in  the  following  poem: 

They  sent  him  back  to  her.  The  letter  came 
Saying  .  .  .  and  she  could  have  him.  And  before 
She  could  be  sure  there  was  no  hidden  ill 
Under  the  formal  writing,  he  was  in  her  sight — 

Living. — They  gave  him  back  to  her  alive — 

How  else?  They  are  not  known  to  send  the  dead — 

And  not  disfigured  visibly.  His  face? 

His  hands?  She  had  to  look — to  ask 
“What  was  it,  dear?”  And  she  had  given  all 
And  still  she  had  all — they  had — they  the  lucky! 

Wasn’t  she  glad  now?  Everything  seemed  won. 

And  all  the  rest  for  them  permissible  ease. 

She  had  to  ask,  “What  was  it,  dear?” 

“Enough, 

Yet  not  enough.  A  bullet  through  and  through 
High  in  the  breast.  Nothing  but  what  good  care 
And  medicine  and  rest — and  you  a  week — 

Can  cure  me  of  to  go  again.”  The  same 
Grim  giving  to  do  over  for  them  both. 

She  dared  no  more  than  ask  him  with  her  eyes 


PAUSING 


55 


How  was  it  with  him  for  a  second  trial. 

And  with  his  eyes  he  asked  her  not  to  ask; 

They  had  given  him  back  to  her,  but  not  to  keep. 

Robert  Frost. 

III.  Repeat  the  process  outlined  in  I,  in  an  original  speech  on: 

(a)  Single  tax. 

(b)  Patriotism. 

(c)  Education. 

(d)  Profit  sharing. 


X 


EMPHASIS  OF  IMPORTANT  WORDS 

SOME  time  ago,  at  the  invitation  of  a  friend,  I  went 
to  hear  an  extravagantly  advertised  “silver-tongued 
orator.’ ’  He  proved  to  be  a  verbose  disappointment.  We 
were  lost  in  a  wilderness  of  “words,  words,  words.” 
There  was  nothing  by  which  we  could  guide  durselves  to 
his  conclusion.  When  the  lecture  was  over,  we  asked 
each  other,  in  our  confusion,  “What  was  it  all  about?” 

It  is  essential,  that  a  speaker  shall  guide  his  hearers 
clearly  from  thought  to  thought,  to  his  conclusion.  How 
shall  he  do  this?  I  shall  answer  the  question  by  a  rather 
obvious  and  naive  symbolism :  “A  hunter  set  out  for  a 
point  on  the  shore  of  a  certain  lake.  To  reach  his  desti¬ 
nation,  he  had  to  pass  through  a  piece  of  virgin  forest. 
There  was  no  path,  which  he  could  follow.  The  way  was 
indicated  by  blazed  trees.  Guided  by  these,  he  reached 
his  journey’s  end.”  Let  me  interpret  the  symbolism. 
The  “hunter”  is  the  audience;  “the  point  on  the  shore  of 
a  certain  lake,”  the  objective;  “the  trees  of  the  forest,” 
the  speaker’s  words;  the  “blazed  trees”  the  emphatic  words 
by  which  the  audience  is  guided,  from  thought  to  thought, 
to  the  conclusion  or  object  of  the  speech. 

The  reason  the  “silver-tongued  orator,”  referred  to, 
left  his  hearers  in  mental  confusion,  was  that  all  his  words 
were  uttered  with  the  same,  or  if  you  like,  without  any 
emphasis.  There  were  no  “blazed  trees”  through  his 
“forest”  of  words,  by  which  his  hearers  could  guide 
themselves. 


56 


EMPHASIS  OF  IMPORTANT  WORDS 


57 


Have  you  noticed  that,  in  conversation,  one  expresses 
exactly  what  one  wishes  to  convey?  For  instance,  I  may 
tell  a  friend,  “I  am  leaving  for  Boston,  (not  another 
place)  in  the  morning,  (not  some  other  time)  I  shall 
go  by  boat.  (Not  by  rail)  It  is  likely  I  shall  remain  a 
week,  (not  a  longer  or  shorter  time).  Thus,  in  this 
talk,  by  means  of  the  emphatic  or  thought  words — Bos¬ 
ton,  morning,  boat,  week — I  tell  my  friends  exactly  what 
I  wish  to  say,  and  without  having  decided  beforehand 
what  words  I  shall  emphasize.  Natural  and  exact  em¬ 
phasis  of  thought  words  in  public  speaking  demands 
definite  thinking,  and  simple  and  direct  speaking.  When 
these  obtain,  the  correct  word  will  be  emphasized  in  the 
expression  of  each  thought,  as  in  conversation. 

In  the  chapter  on  the  preparation  of  material,  the 
reader's  attention  was  called  to  the  fact,  that,  in  the 
development  of  a  subject,  thoughts  are  of  unequal  value. 
They  vary  in  importance,  according  to  the  degree  of  their 
relativity  or  bearing  upon  the  theme.  This  inequality, 
in  the  value  of  material  was  indicated  in  a  form,  called 
a  ‘‘brief,"  in  the  chapter  referred  to.  The  public  speaker 
should  have  a  clear  and  definite  grasp  of  this  arrange¬ 
ment  of  his  thoughts,  before  he  essays  to  address  an 
audience.  Then,  he  will  focus  the  attention  of  his  hearers 
upon  definite  ideas,  and  according  to  the  relative  values  of 
those  ideas.  This  will  result  in  emphasis,  at  once  exact, 
and  correct  in  degree.  Emphasis,  then,  is  based  upon 
clear  thinking,  and  the  application  of  right  audience  re¬ 
lationship.  If  the  public  speaker  will  apply  these  con¬ 
ditions,  in  his  speech-making,  his  emphasis  will  be  exact 
in  word  location,  and  right  in  degree. 

It  is  essential  that  the  speaker  shall  unerringly  em¬ 
phasize  the  right  word.  What  is  the  result  of  incorrect 
emphasis?  Simply  this,  the  audience  loses  the  thread  of 
the  speech  and  confusion  results.  By  a  return  to  correct 


58 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


emphasis,  the  logical  sequence  of  ideas  may  be  again  re¬ 
established,  and  the  conclusion  eventually  reached,  but 
the  effectiveness  of  the  speech  as  a  whole,  has  been  im¬ 
paired.  For  example,  the  hunter  referred  to  earlier  in 
this  chapter,  might  have  lost  his  way  temporarily  in  his 
journey  through  the  forest,  but  have  found  the  blazed 
path  again,  and  reached  his  destination.  But,  on  account 
of  his  temporary  confusion,  the  journey  would  not  have 
been  completed  as  expeditiously,  as  it  might  have  been. 

ASSIGNMENTS 

I.  Use  the  sentence,  “John  walked  down  College  Street  to¬ 
day,”  in  answer  to  each  of  the  following  questions,  empha¬ 
sizing  the  word  that  definitely  answers  the  inquiry: 

(a)  Who  walked  down  College  Street  to-day? 

(b)  Did  you  say  that  John  rode  down  College  Street 
to-day  ? 

(c)  Did  you  say  that  John  walked  up  College  Street 
to-day  ? 

(d)  Did  you  say  that  John  walked  down  Fifth  Avenue 
to-day  ? 

(e)  Did  you  say  that  John  walked  down  College  Street 
yesterday  ? 

II.  Repeat  the  same  process  with  other  sentences. 

III.  Deliver  the  sentence.  “Though  I  spoke  with  the  tongues 
of  men  and  of  angels,  and  have  not  charity,  I  am  become 
as  sounding  brass,  and  a  tinkling  cymbal,”  and  definitely 
call  the  hearers'  attention  to  each  idea,  and  by  so  doing 
emphasize  distinctly  the  thought  word  in  each  case. 

IV.  In  the  sentence  quoted  in  III,  the  thought  words  are  “men,” 
“angels,”  “charity,”  “brass,”  “cymbal.”  Clearly,  the  most 
important  of  these  is  “charity” ;  and  “men”  and  “angels” 
are  more  important  than  “brass”  and  “cymbals.”  Upon 
the  basis  of  this  analysis,  deliver  the  sentence  calling  the 
attention  of  the  hearers  to  each  idea  according  to  the  rela¬ 
tive  value  assigned  to  it  in  your  mind. 

V.  Apply  the  process  outlined  in  IV  to  the  remaining  verses 
in  I.  Corinthians,  XIII  Chapter. 

VI.  Apply  the  process  outlined  in  IV  to  the  following  para¬ 
graph  : 


EMPHASIS  OF  IMPORTANT  WORDS 


59 


If  I  were  to  tell  you  the  story  of  Napoleon,  I  should 
take  it  from  the  lips  of  Frenchmen,  who  find  no  language 
rich  enough  to  paint  the  great  captain  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Were  I  to  tell  you  the  story  of  Washington,  I 
should  take  it  from  your  hearts — you  who  think  no  marble 
white  enough  on  which  to  carve  the  name  of  the  father 
of  his  country.  But  I  am  to  tell  you  the  story  of  a  negro, 
Toussaint  L’Ouverture,  who  has  left  hardly  one  written 
line.  I  am  to  glean  it  from  the  reluctant  testimony  of  his 
enemies,  men  who  despised  him  because  he  was  a  negro 
and  a  slave,  and  hated  him  because  he  had  beaten  them 
in  battle. — Wendell  Phillips. 

VII.  Apply  the  process  outlined  in  IV  to  an  original  speech  on: 

(a)  Co-operation  between  Capital  and  Labor. 

(b)  Benefits  of  Life  Insurance. 

(c)  Gambling. 

(d)  Desirability  of  High  Ideals. 


XI 


HOW  TO  ELIMINATE  SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS 

WHO  has  not  had  an  experience  like  the  following? 

You  knew  you  were  to  be  called  upon  to  make  a 
speech.  Your  heart  hammered  and  thumped.  You  were 
almost  sick  with  apprehension.  When  you  arose  to  speak, 
your  hands  and  feet  seemed  to  be  abnormally  obtrusive. 
You  were  conscious  your  movements  were  ridiculously 
awkward  and  constrained.  Your  sight  seemed  to  be 
dimmed.  The  audience  was  a  vague  and  menacing  mass. 
Your  mouth  was  parched.  Your  tongue  clove  to  the  roof 
of  your  mouth.  For  a  moment  you  could  not  utter  a 
word.  Your  mind  was  a  jumble  of  confusion.  Finally, 
you  found  your  tongue  enough  to  stammer  out  a  few  un¬ 
connected  sentences.  The  sound  of  your  own  voice 
frightened  you.  Then,  you  sat  down  overwhelmed  with 
confusion  and  humiliation.  Ever  since,  you  have  wished 
that  the  impression  made  by  this  painful  experience  could 
be  blotted  from  your  memory. 

You  suffered  all  this  misery  at  the  time  of  speaking, 
and  have  endured  a  bitter  remembrance  ever  since,  be¬ 
cause  you  allowed  your  attention  to  centre,  where  it  should 
not  have  centered,  upon  yourself.  You  stood  upon  the 
platform  “stewing  in  your  own  juice,”  until,  finally,  you 
“boiled  away  to  nothing.”  Your  attempt  ended  disas¬ 
trously,  because  you  were  conscious  of  yourself  or  self- 
conscious. 

How  can  self-consciousness  be  eliminated?  By  taking 
your  mind  off  yourself,  through  placing  it  somewhere 
else.  How  can  this  be  done  ?  I  shall  answer  the  question 
with  a  concrete  study. 


60 


ELIMINATING  SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS  61 


Not  long  ago,  an  eminent  statesman  and  orator  visited 
this  continent.  Those,  who  were  privileged  to  hear  him, 
were  charmed  with  his  geniality,  simplicity,  and  distinc¬ 
tion.  They  admired  his  perfect  ease  and  complete  self- 
possession.  Many  a  one  must  have  thought  to  himself, 
“Would  I  could  have  such  consummate  freedom  and  ‘at- 
homeness’  before  an  audience.” 

As  one  listened  to  him,  one  could  scarcely  conceive, 
that  in  the  early  stages  of  his  public  speaking  career  he 
suffered  all  the  tortures  described  in  this  chapter.  Yet  it 
was  so.  Even  now,  according  to  his  own  confession,  he 
very  often  suffers  from  an  exaggerated  apprehension  be¬ 
fore  he  arises  to  speak.  He  ascribes  this  to  an  extreme 
sensitiveness.  However,  he  has  practically  overcome  this 
bane  of  many  an  orator’s  life.  The  question  that  inter¬ 
ests  us  is,  how  did  he  overcome  it? 

When  he  arises  to  speak,  he  suggests  purposefulness. 
He  conveys  the  impression  that  he  has  something  to  say, 
and  that  he  has  a  thorough  grasp  of  his  subject.  He 
rises,  as  it  were,  in  the  atmosphere  of  his  subject.  This 
is  a  result  of  a  concentration  upon  his  theme,  so  absorb¬ 
ing  that  it  shuts  out  all  the  distracting  influences — includ¬ 
ing  a  consciousness  of  self — that  press  upon  his  atten¬ 
tion,  before  he  arises  to  address  the  audience.  As  he  pro¬ 
ceeds  with  the  development  of  the  question  under  con¬ 
sideration,  even  the  winsome  personality  is  forgotten  by 
his  hearers,  while  he  rivets  their  attention  upon  his  train 
of  ideas.  He  overcomes  any  apprehension,  that  may 
threaten  to  obsess  him  before  he  arises  to  speak,  by  center¬ 
ing  his  attention  exclusively  upon  his  subject.  He  elimi¬ 
nates  self-consciousness,  during  the  progress  of  his  ad¬ 
dress,  by  occupying  himself  with  calling  the  attention  of 
the  audience  to,  or  focusing  it  upon,  his  succession  of 
ideas.  Thus,  he  renders  it  impossible  for  his  attention 
to  centre  upon  himself. 


62 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


Then,  the  miseries  of  self-consciousness  before  one 
arises  to  speak,  may  be  avoided  by  concentrating  one’s  own 
attention  upon  the  subject;  and  during  the  time  of  speak¬ 
ing,  by  concentrating  the  attention  of  the  audience  upon, 
or  calling  it  to,  the  ideas.  In  neither  case  is  the  speaker’s 
attention  allowed  to  centre  upon  himself.  Thus,  the  cause 
of  self-consciousness  is  eliminated. 

One  of  the  most  common  of  the  causes,  that  contribute 
to  induce  self-consciousness  in  public  speaking,  is  fear, 
e.g.,  fear  of  forgetting,  fear  of  becoming  ridiculous,  fear 
that  some  members  of  the  audience  may  possess  a  supe¬ 
rior  knowledge  of  the  subject,  fear  from  lack  of  prepara¬ 
tion.  Thorough  preparation  is  the  surest  way  of  over¬ 
coming  fear.  In  public  speaking,  perfect  preparation 
“casteth  out  fear.”  In  this  connection,  I  would  strongly 
urge  the  student  to  ponder  and  apply  the  counsel  offered 
in  the  chapters  entitled  “Preparation”  and  “Speaking  with 
Authority.” 

It  may  be  a  satisfaction  to  anyone  troubled  with  self- 
consciousness  to  know,  that  at  the  basis  of  it  are  a  sen¬ 
sitiveness  and  a  sensibility,  which  are  characteristic  of  all 
orators  of  distinction. 

ASSIGNMENTS 

I.  Remaining  seated,  and  allowing  your  mind  to  become 
absorbed  in  focusing  the  attention  of  your  hearers  upon 
or  relating  it  to  each  image,  concept,  idea,  fact,  judgment, 
or  truth,  to  the  exclusion  of  self.  Explain, 

(a)  The  operation  of  some  machine. 

(b)  How  to  reach  a  certain  place. 

(c)  Some  work  or  calling  in  which  you  are  interested. 

(d)  Some  current  event,  e.g.,  the  disarmament  conference. 

(e)  Parliamentary  procedure. 

(f)  Necessity  for  religion. 

Or  tell  a  story,  or  describe  a  landscape. 

II.  Stand  up,  apply  the  processes  to  the  same  themes  as  out¬ 
lined  in  I. 


XII 


HOW  TO  AVOID  MONOTONY 

I  SHALL,  in  the  first  place,  define  the  issue  for  this 
chapter.  A  public  speaker  may  be  monotonous  in  his 
matter,  or  in  his  manner,  or  in  both.  I  shall  concern 
myself,  in  this  chapter,  with  monotony  in  delivery  only. 

In  oral  expression,  our  ideas  are  revealed  through  the 
voice  and  body.  Then,  monotony  in  delivery  may  mani¬ 
fest  itself  in  vocalization  or  in  gesture.  Monotony  or  man¬ 
nerism  in  gesture  will  be  dealt  with  in  another  chapter. 
Consequently  the  issue  in  this  chapter  is  further  limited 
to  the  treatment  of  monotony  in  delivery,  as  it  applies  to 
the  voice. 

There  will  be  no  reference,  at  this  point,  to  the  train¬ 
ing  of  the  voice.  This  important  subject  will  be  dealt 
with  later  in  this  book.  I  will  assert,  however,  at  this 
point,  that,  in  the  application  of  the  recommendations 
submitted  for  the  reader’s  consideration  in  this  chapter, 
the  greater  the  degree  of  the  control  and  freedom  of  the 
voice,  or,  to  put  it  more  technically,  the  less  the  interfer¬ 
ence  with  the  free  vibrations  of  the  vocal  cords,  and  the 
normal  amount  of  resonance  space,  the  greater  will  be 
the  degree  of  variety  in  vocal  expression. 

To  inquire  from  my  reader,  “Have  you  ever  listened 
to  a  tiresome  speaker?”  would  be  to  ask  a  foolish  ques¬ 
tion.  Public  speakers  who  drone  along  on  a  sameness  of 
tone;  or,  whose  voices  regularly  rise  and  fall  with  the 
wearisome  recurrence  of  a  certain  cadence;  or  who  afflict 
their  audiences  with  a  dull  and  uniform  delivery,  are, 
unfortunately,  always  with  us. 

63 


64 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


Monotony  in  delivery  is  death  to  all  interest.  The 
monotonous  public  speaker,  whose  topics  are  of  a  general 
nature,  bores  his  audience,  and  fails  either  to  gain  or  to 
hold  attention.  The  monotonous  preacher  becomes  tedi¬ 
ous.  His  hearers  are  too  often  lulled  to  sleep  under  the 
soothing  sounds  of  the  Gospel. 

The  antithesis  to  monotony  is  variety.  What  are  the 
characteristics,  that  render  monotony  so  undesirable,  and 
variety  so  desirable  in  public  speaking?  Let  me  answer 
the  question  with  a  series  of  contrasts!  Monotony  is 
dull,  variety  animated;  monotony  prosy,  variety  interest¬ 
ing;  monotony  lifeless,  variety  graphic;  monotony  stupid, 
variety  keen. 

Monotony  is  the  most  distinctive  mark  of  death;  vari¬ 
ety,  of  life.  Henry  Ward  Beecher  said,  “Men  love 
variety  when  they  are  alive.”  Wherever  there  is  variety, 
there  is  also  vigor  and  spirit. 

Variety  is  the  characteristic  expression  of  naturalness. 
It  is  never  associated  with  artificiality,  affectation,  or  ex¬ 
aggeration.  The  normal  man  approves  naturalness.  He 
detests  unnaturalness.  Audiences  are  usually  made  up  of 
normal  persons.  It  follows,  that  variety  in  public  speak¬ 
ing  will  stimulate  the  members  of  an  audience  to  life, 
and  secure  their  alert  attention. 

How  shall  we  avoid  monotony  in  public  speaking?  We 
are  so  apt  “to  go  star-gazing  and  step  on  a  glow  worm,” 
to  look  for  some  wonderful  remedy,  and  miss  the  humble 
and  effective  one,  close  at  hand.  I  shall  suggest  the 
answer  to  the  question  by  asking  another.  When,  in  the 
communication  of  ideas,  are  we  quite  natural?  The 
answer  to  the  latter  question  is  quite  obvious.  In  con¬ 
versation.  Genung  writes,  “It  (conversation)  is  the 
crowning  excellence  of  skilled  expression.”  Now,  what 
are  the  attributes  of  conversational  speech  form,  that 
constitute  its  variety?  If  you  will  listen  critically  to  a 


HOW  TO  AVOID  MONOTONY 


65 


conversation,  I  am  sure  you  will  agree  with  me,  that  they 
are  pause,  emphasis,  change  of  pitch,  inflection,  and 
variety  in  the  rate  of  the  utterance  of  the  words.  But, 
you  may  ask,  “How  can  I  secure  these  in  public  speak¬ 
ing,  if  you  will  provide  me  with  no  rules?”  Please,  do 
not  worry.  Did  not  the  persons,  to  whom  you  listened, 
converse  spontaneously?  Was  not  the  speech  form 
marked  by  variety?  Were  they  conscious  of  the  function¬ 
ing  of  their  voices  in  the  expression  of  that  variety? 
Then  to  avoid  monotony  or  to  secure  variety,  the  public 
speaker  must  adopt  the  direct  and  natural,  or  conversa¬ 
tional  attitude  toward  his  audience. 

Many  speakers  attempt  to  secure  variety  by  artificial 
means,  e.g.,  by  “raising  the  voice  to  express  joy,  and  by 
lowering  it  to  express  sorrow,”  and  like  absurdities. 
Avoid  these  affectations  as  you  would  the  plague. 

Others,  again,  seek  to  relieve  monotony  by  loudness. 
Shouting  merely  confuses.  It  does  not  possess  the  basis 
of  real  variety.  It  is  purely  physical.  If  physical  force 
is  to  be  used  to  arouse  the  attention  of  an  audience,  it 
would  be  more  effective  to  adopt  means  similar  to  those 
used  by  a  certain  spirited  divine.  It  is  told  of  him,  that, 
upon  one  occasion,  when  a  member  of  his  congregation 
fell  asleep  during  the  delivery  of  a  sermon,  he  hurled  a 
book  at  the  delinquent,  saying,  as  he  did  so,  that  if  he 
would  not  listen  to  the  Gospel,  he  would  feel  it.  How¬ 
ever,  I  only  suggest  this  means  of  arousing  hearers  out 
of  their  drowsiness.  I  do  not  prescribe  it. 

ASSIGNMENTS 

I.  Repeat  the  problems  assigned  in  connection  with  the  chap¬ 
ter  on  Emphasis  of  Important  Words. 

II.  With  definite  concentration  upon  each  idea,  and  under 
conditions  of  control  and  ease,  read  the  following  conver¬ 
sationally  and  deliberately: 


66 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


“The  battle  of  Waterloo — and  this  gave  Bliicher  time  to 
come  up — could  not  be  commenced  before  half-past  eleven. 
Why?  Because  the  ground  was  soft.  It  was  necessary 
for  it  to  acquire  some  little  firmness  so  that  the  artillery 
could  maneuver. 

“Had  the  ground  been  dry,  and  the  artillery  able  to 
move,  the  action  would  have  been  commenced  at  six  o’clock 
in  the  morning.  The  battle  would  have  been  won  and 
finished  at  two  o’clock,  three  hours  before  the  Prussians 
turned  the  scale  of  fortune. 

“How  much  fault  is  there  on  the  part  of  Napoleon  in 
the  loss  of  this  battle  ?  His  plan  of  battle  was,  all  confess, 
a  masterpiece.  To  march  straight  to  the  center  of  the 
allied  line,  pierce  the  enemy,  cut  them  in  two,  push  the 
British  half  upon  Hal  and  the  Prussian  half  upon  Ton- 
gres,  make  Wellington  and  Bliicher  two  fragments,  carry 
Mont  Saint  Jean,  seize  Brussels,  throw  the  Germans 
into  the  Rhine,  and  the  Englishman  into  the  sea.  All  this, 
for  Napoleon,  was  in  this  battle.  What  would  follow, 
anybody  can  see.” — Victor  Hugo. 

III.  Read  the  following,  with  an  intensity  of  concentration,  and 
a  realizing  sense  of  the  vividness,  deep  emotion,  and  moral 
elevation : 

“She  is  now  no  more — no  more?  Nay,  I  boldly  say  she 
lives — lives  in  the  hearts  of  her  subjects;  lives  in  the  pages 
of  history.  And  as  the  ages  revolve,  as  her  pure  profile 
stands  more  marked  against  the  horizon  of  time,  the  verdict 
of  posterity  will  ratify  the  judgment  of  those  who  were 
her  subjects.  She  ennobled  mankind;  she  exalted  royalty; 
the  world  is  better  for  her  life.” 

Extract  from  “On  the  death  of  Queen  Victoria.” — Sir 
Wilfrid  Laurier. 

IV.  Read  the  following,  giving  clear  expression  to  the  antithe¬ 
ses,  and  to  the  vivid  images: 

“Here  we  can  not  but  pause  to  contemplate  two  wonder¬ 
ful  men,  belonging  to  the  same  age  and  to  the  same  nation : 
Napoleon  and  Lafayette.  Their  names  excite  no  kindred 
emotions;  their  fates  no  kindred  sympathies.  Napoleon — 
the  child  of  Destiny — the  thunderbolt  of  war — the  victor 
in  a  hundred  battles — the  dispenser  of  thrones  and  do¬ 
mains;  he  who  scaled  the  Alps  and  reclined  beneath  the 
Pyramids,  whose  word  was  fate  and  whose  wish  was  law. 


HOW  TO  AVOID  MONOTONY 


67 


Lafayette — the  volunteer  of  Freedom — the  advocate  of 
human  rights — the  defender  of  civil  liberty — the  patriot 
and  the  philanthropist — the  beloved  of  the  good  and  the 
free.  Napoleon — the  vanquished  warrior,  ignobly  flying 
from  the  field  of  Waterloo,  the  wild  beast,  ravaging  all 
Europe  in  his  wrath,  hunted  down  by  the  banded  and 
affrighted  nations  and  caged  far  away  upon  an  ocean- 
girded  rock.  Lafayette — a  watchword  by  which  men  excite 
each  other  to  deeds  of  worth  and  noble  daring;  whose 
home  has  become  the  Mecca  of  freedom,  towards  which 
the  pilgrims  of  Liberty  turn  their  eyes  from  every  quarter 
of  the  globe.  Napoleon  was  the  red  and  fiery  comet, 
shooting  wildly  through  the  realms  of  space  and  scattering 
pestilence  and  terror  among  the  nations.  Lafayette  was 
the  pure  and  brilliant  planet,  beneath  whose  grateful  beams 
the  mariner  directs  his  bark  and  the  shepherd  tends  to 
his  flock.  Napoleon  died  and  a  few  old  warriors — the 
scattered  relics  of  Marengo  and  of  Austerlitz — bewailed 
their  chief.  Lafayette  is  dead  and  the  tears  of  a  civilized 
world  attest  how  deep  is  the  mourning  for  his  loss.  Such 
is,  and  always  will  be,  the  difference  of  feeling  toward 
a  benefactor  and  a  conqueror  of  the  human  race. 

Extract  from  “Napoleon  and  Lafayette.” — Sargent  S. 
Prentiss. 

V.  Focus  the  attention  of  the  audience  upon  each  thought  in 
the  quoted  passage  according  to  the  degree  of  its  impor¬ 
tance.  The  result  in  expression  will  be,  that  the  greater 
degree  of  the  importance  of  the  idea,  the  more  deliberate 
will  be  the  utterance  of  the  phrase  in  which  it  is  couched. 

“Blessed  are  the  poor  in  spirit ;  for  their’s  is  the  kingdom  of 
heaven. 

JBlessed  are  they  that  mourn;  for  they  shall  be  comforted. 
Blessed  are  the  meek;  for  they  shall  inherit  the  earth. 
Blessed  are  they  which  do  hunger  and  thirst  after  right¬ 
eousness;  for  they  shall  be  filled. 

Blessed  are  the  merciful ;  for  they  shall  obtain  mercy. 
Blessed  are  the  pure  in  heart ;  for  they  shall  see  God. 
Blessed  are  the  peacemakers ;  for  they  shall  be  called  the 
children  of  God. 

Blessed  are  they  which  are  persecuted  for  righteousness 
sake;  for  theirs  is  the  kingdom  of  heaven. 

Blessed  are  ye,  when  men  shall  revile  you  and  persecute 


68 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


you,  and  shall  say  all  manner  of  evil  against  you  falsely, 
for  my  sake. 

Rejoice,  and  be  exceedingly  glad:  for  great  is  your  reward 
in  heaven :  for  so  persecuted  they  the  prophets  which  were 
before  you.” 

Matthew:  V  Chapter,  Verses  3-12. 

VI.  Treat  each  of  the  following  themes  antithetically  and  em¬ 
phasize  the  contrasts  in  the  delivery. 

(a)  Restrictive  liquor  legislation  vs.  Prohibition. 

(b)  Liberalism  and  Radicalism. 

(c)  Von  Tirpitz  and  Edison. 

(d)  History  and  Fiction. 

(e)  Gladstone  and  Disraeli. 

(f)  Rural  and  Urban  life. 

(g)  The  Self-Educated  and  the  College  Educated  man. 


XIII 


s 


CARRYING  POWER  OF  VOICE 

I  SHALL  not  discuss  voice  production  or  vocal  tech¬ 
nique  in  this  chapter.  These  questions  will  be  dealt 
with  elsewhere  in  this  book.  The  purpose  of  this  chapter 
is  to  consider  the  effect  of  the  conversational  standard 
for  public  speaking,  which  demands  the  correct  relation¬ 
ship  of  the  speaker  to  the  audience,  upon  the  carrying 
power  of  the  voice.  In  other  words,  it  is  a  treatment  of 
the  subject  from  the  psychic  standpoint. 

May  I  interject,  at  this  point,  that  this  chapter  is  written 
for  those  who  possess  voices  of  relatively  normal  condi¬ 
tions  and  who  may  be  called  upon  to  speak  in  reasonably 
sized  halls  of  comparatively  satisfactory  acoustic  proper¬ 
ties.  Those  whose  voices  will  not  respond  adequately, 
upon  the  application  of  the  conditions  of  carrying  power 
that  will  be  considered,  on  account  of  faulty  voice  produc¬ 
tion  or  organic  trouble,  should  consult  a  specialist  in  voice 
training. 

Is  it  not  remarkable  that  one  person  will  converse  with 
a  number  of  others  quite  naturally,  but  when  he  addresses 
a  gathering,  in  what  is  known  as  a  public  speech,  he  will 
key  his  voice  much  higher  than  its  customary  pitch,  and 
shout?  You  may  recall  how  conversationally  some  min¬ 
ister  made  the  announcements ;  and  how  loud  and  strident 
his  voice  became,  as  he  preached  the  sermon.  Yet,  you 
could  hear  the  announcements  distinctly.  He  would  have 
considered  it  absurd  to  convey  the  facts  of  the  announce- 

69 


70 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


merits  in  loud  and  strident  tones.  Why  did  he  not  regard 
it  equally  absurd  to  express  the  ideas  of  his  sermon  in 
this  manner? 

There  is  a  prevailing  misconception  that  to  be  heard 
in  a  large  space,  such  as  that  of  an  auditorium,  the  public 
speaker  must  raise  his  voice  and  bellow.  The  fact  of 
the  matter  is,  while  a  volume  of  harsh  sound  can  be  heard, 
ranting  confuses  the  hearing,  shocks  the  sensibilities  of 
the  hearers,  and  interferes  with  the  distinctness  of  the 
utterance  of  the  words. 

Where,  under  circumstances  other  than  those  of  public 
speaking,  do  we  find  loudness  and  stridency?  In  excite¬ 
ment,  lack  of  control,  and  anger.  In  other  words  under 
physical,  and  a  low  order  of  emotional  agitation.  But 
public  speaking  is  primarily  an  appeal  to  the  reason. 
Therefore,  shouting  or  ranting,  which  is  essentially  an 
expression  of  emotional  and  physical  excitement,  is  not 
the  correct  means  of  securing  carrying  power  of  voice  in 
oratory. 

A  voice  that  carries  well  in  public  speaking,  may  be 
described  as  one  that  can  adapt  itself,  without  tension,  to 
any  distance  demanded  by  the  ordinary  conditions  of 
speech-making;  and  can  convey  the  thoughts  so  intel¬ 
ligibly,  and  express  the  words  so  distinctly,  that  the 
hearers  can  appreciate,  and  distinguish  plainly  and  with¬ 
out  strain,  everything  that  is  said.  Such  voice  produc¬ 
tion  is  conditioned  upon  physical  ease,  natural  pitch  of 
the  voice,  and  intimacy  with  the  audience.  When,  in 
talking  to  others,  are  we  physically  at  ease?  In  conver¬ 
sation.  When  do  we  speak  upon  our  natural  and  cus¬ 
tomary  pitch?  In  conversation.  When  do  we  speak 
simply,  directly,  and  intimately  to  others?  In  conversa¬ 
tion. 

The  conversational  standard  for  public  speaking,  so 
frequently  urged  in  this  book,  is  the  basis  of  good  carry- 


CARRYING  POWER  OF  VOICE 


71 


ing  power  of  voice.  If  the  speaker  will  talk  to  his  hearers 
personally  and  intimately,  if  he  will  realize  that  he  is 
speaking  to  every  member  of  an  audience,  after  the 
manner  suggested  in  Chapter  VII,  his  voice  will  carry 
to  every  part  of  any  auditorium  in  which  he  may  be  called 
upon  to  speak. 

An  excellent  exercise  for  securing  conversational 
naturalness  and  satisfactory  carrying  power  of  voice  in 
public  speaking  is  that  outlined  in  Chapter  II,  by  which 
the  student  is  required  to  talk  to  real  or  imaginary  per¬ 
sons,  at  distances,  that  are  gradually  increased  until  they 
approximate  the  space  of  the  average  auditorium. 

Finally  I  would  urge  the  necessity  of  clearness  in  artic¬ 
ulation  and  enunciation  for  public  speaking.  We  have 
been  afflicted  too  long  with  a  slothful,  indifferent,  badly 
enunciated,  and  poorly  articulated  emission  of  flaccid 
sounds.  Every  school  teacher  should  be  an  expert  pho¬ 
netician.  Then,  the  pupils  would  have  the  advantage  of 
a  specialist’s  instruction  and  example.  I  anticipate,  that 
not  till  then  will  our  public  speakers  enunciate  their  words 
with  desirable  distinctness. 

ASSIGNMENTS 

I.  Speaking  on  the  conversational  pitch,  and  realizing  the 
constitution  of  an  audience  and  the  relationship  that  should 
exist  between  the  speaker  and  his  audience,  talk  intimately 
to  your  hearers  on  the  following  subjects,  at  distances 
varying  from  close  proximity,  to  the  last  seat  in  an 
auditorium : 

(a)  My  First  Speech. 

(b)  Wireless  Telegraphy. 

(c)  Political  Partyism. 

(d)  The  Old  Swimming  Hole. 

(e)  Environment. 

(f)  Women  in  Politics. 


XIV 


NATURALNESS  IN  GESTURING 

THE  public  speaker  “appeals  to  the  eye  and  to  the 
ear  of  his  hearer/’  He  appeals  to  the  eye — and 
this  is  our  concern  in  this  chapter — through  the  attitude 
of  his  body,  the  movements  of  his  arms,  and  the  expres¬ 
sion  of  his  face.  In  fact,  these  sometimes  suggest  an 
emotional  experience  much  more  effectively  than  words 
can  convey  it. 

The  following  incident  will  serve  to  emphasize  the 
effectiveness  of  spontaneous  and  sincere  physical  expres¬ 
sion  When  the  Spanish- American  war  broke  out,  the 
Spanish  legation  to  the  United  States,  left  Washington 
and  journeyed  to  Toronto.  The  Canadian  government, 
with  a  proper  regard  for  and  a  correct  appreciation  of 
international  proprieties,  intimated  to  the  Spanish  am¬ 
bassador  and  his  entourage  that  it  would  be  advisable 
for  them  to  withdraw  from  Canada.  The  reasons  for 
this  hint  were  obvious. 

Before  the  Spanish  legation  left  Toronto,  an  arrange¬ 
ment  was  made  with  Senor  Du  Bose,  the  first  secretary 
of  the  legation,  to  address  a  public  meeting.  The  pro¬ 
ceeds  of  this  meeting  were  to  be  divided  between  the 
Spanish  and  American  Red  Cross  societies. 

At  the  conclusion  of  a  very  impressive  address,  Senor 
Du  Bose  drew  a  picture  of  the  Queen  Mother  of  Spain 
flinging  herself  about  the  throne  to  protect  the  child  King. 
As  the  orator  contemplated  the  scene,  conjured  up  in  his 
imagination,  he  was  overcome.  He  paused  for  a  few 

72 


NATURALNESS  IN  GESTURING 


73 


moments,  unable  to  speak,  and  then  abruptly  left  the  plat¬ 
form.  His  bodily  elevation,  trembling  lip,  kindling  eye, 
and  impressive  gesture  were  more  eloquent  than  words 
could  possibly  have  been. 

Many  of  my  readers  will  recollect  Wendell  Phillips’ 
description  of  O’Connell  in  action:  “Lithe  as  a  boy,  at 
seventy,  every  gesture  a  grace,  every  attitude  a  picture, 
he  was  still  all  nature,”  or  Lowell’s  reference  to  Webster: 
“Drawing  himself  up  to  his  loftiest  proportions,  his  brow 
clothed  with  thunder.” 

It  must  be  apparent,  that  gestures,  and  attitudes  and 
movements  of  the  body  in  public  speaking  should  not  be 
underestimated,  since  they  contribute  so  materially  to 
the  effective  delivery  of  the  speaker’s  message.  A  dis¬ 
tinguished  authority  on  public  speaking  has  recently 
written :  “A  simple  flash  of  the  eye,  a  turn  of  the  hand, 
a  forward  swing  of  the  body,  may  say  more  than  all  the 
words  in  an  address.”  The  stiff,  rigid  angularity  of 
some  speakers,  who  repress  every  impulse  to  gesture,  and 
speak  with  the  expressionless  gravity  of  a  “wooden  In¬ 
dian,”  is  a  triumph  of  dreary  monotony. 

On  the  other  hand,  bodily  expression  must  not  be  over¬ 
estimated.  Undue  accentuation  is  very  distracting.  We 
have  all  been,  at  some  time  or  other,  the  unwilling,  if 
unresisting  victims  of  those  wildly  gesticulatory  orators, 
who  persist  in  “pawing  the  air,”  or  “talking  on  all  fours.” 

Then,  there  is  the  mechanical,  artificial,  and  conscious 
elocutionary  gesturing.  A  friend  of  mine,  an  actor,  told 
me  of  a  personal  experience,  that  makes  an  appropriate 
illustration  here.  He  was  engaged  to  play  a  part  by  a 
celebrated  manager,  Mr.  R.  At  the  first  rehearsal,  my 
friend  was  applying  some  rules  in  gesture  that  he  had  been 
taught.  The  absurd  manipulation  of  his  arms  attracted 
Mr.  R.’s  attention.  He  inquired  the  purpose  of  the 
peculiar  demonstration.  My  friend  told  him,  that  he 


74 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


was  taught  to  count  four  under  the  circumstances  that 
demanded,  as  he  was  led  to  believe,  this  particular  gesture, 
and  then  make  it.  Mr.  R.  was  amazed.  “Good  heavens, 
man/’  he  said  brusquely,  “if  a  man  called  you  a  scoundrel, 
would  you  wait  until  you  counted  four,  before  you 
knocked  him  down?”  The  illustration  may  be  crude, 
the  inference  must  be  clear. 

Gesturing  should  be  natural  and  spontaneous.  Where 
are  these  characteristics  to  be  found?  In  conversation. 
Did  not  a  Frenchman  once  say,  “Let  go  my  hands;  I 
want  to  talk.”  If  a  speaker  will  assume  the  conversa¬ 
tional  attitude  towards  his  hearers,  so  frequently  urged 
in  this  book,  the  natural  movements  of  the  arms  will  be 
stretched  into  gestures,  and  those  of  the  body  accentuated, 
and  adjusted  to  audience  conditions. 

Assuming  the  proper — that  is,  the  conversational — 
audience  relationship,  the  adequacy  and  true  expressive¬ 
ness  of  gesture  depend  upon  the  degree  of  control,  free¬ 
dom,  and  spontaneity  of  the  physical  agents  of  expression. 
These  desirable  physical  conditions  can  be  developed  with¬ 
out  violating  the  natural  method  of  training,  by  the  prac¬ 
tice  of  exercises  based  on  nature’s  processes.  In  Chapter 
XXVI  a  system  of  such  exercises  is  prescribed,  with 
explicit  instructions  for  their  application. 

The  widest  connotation  of  the  word  “gesture”  includes 
the  conditions,  and  postures  or  attitudes  of  the  body  in 
delivery,  as  well  as  the  motions  of  the  head,  body,  and 
limbs.  Consequently,  reference  to  physical  control,  free¬ 
dom,  and  ease  in  public  speaking  is  distinctly  pertinent. 

I  shall  reverse  the  order  in  the  following  treatment  of 
this  phase  of  the  subject  of  gesture,  and  give  the  first 
place  to  ease.  By  physical  ease  is  not  implied  a  lazy 
flabbiness  or  a  torpid  inertness.  What  is  meant,  is  a 
body  released  but  awake,  tranquil  but  ready,  reposeful 
but  prepared. 


NATURALNESS  IN  GESTURING 


75 


Of  course,  physical  expression  is,  apart  from  certain 
possible  limitations,  due  to  lack  of  responsiveness,  a  mani¬ 
festation  of  mental  processes  and  conditions.  At  the 
same  time,  there  is  the  reflex  of  the  conditions  of  the  body 
upon  the  mental  action  and  state.  Browning  wrote,  “Nor 
soul  helps  flesh  more  than  flesh  helps  soul.”  The  same 
might  just  as  appropriately  be  said  of  the  mind  and  body. 
A  reposeful,  tranquil,  alert  mind  makes  for  a  poised, 
relaxed,  ready  body,  and  vice  versa.  On  the  other  hand, 
excessive  physical  strain  induces  undue  mental  tension. 
An  excess  of  bodily  activity  causes  a  mental  agitation, 
and  the  reverse. 

Then,  in  public  speaking,  there  is  the  audience.  Do 
you  remember  the  vast  amount  of  entertainment  you 
used  to  derive  from  the  mirror,  when  you  were  a  child? 
You  would  smile,  and  the  boy  in  the  glass  would  smile 
back  at  you.  You  would  pull  a  face,  and  he  would  make 
a  face  back  at  you.  Then,  you  would  shake  your  fist  at 
him,  and  he  would  shake  his  fist  back  at  you.  Well,  audi¬ 
ences  behave  like  reflections  in  the  mirror.  If  the  speaker 
is  at  his  ease,  his  hearers  will  be  at  their  ease;  if  he  is  well- 
poised,  they  will  be  under  his  control;  if  he  is  laboring 
under  tension,  they  will  be  strained;  if  he  is  excessively 
active,  they  will  be  confused;  if  he  fidgets,  they  will  be 
nervous  and  restless;  if  he  is  inert  and  flabby,  they  will  be 
flaccid.  An  audience  is,  then,  as  I  have  said  a  reflection, 
and  returns  to  the  speaker  exactly  what  he  gives. 

I  have  stated  that  poise,  freedom,  and  ease  are  mutually 
dependent.  Ease  is  conditional  upon  freedom,  and  free¬ 
dom  upon  poise  or  control.  The  physical  reflection  of 
mental  conditions  and  processes,  in  this  regard,  has  just 
been  considered.  It  is  quite  as  important — in  fact,  it  is 
absolutely  indispensable — to  freedom  and  ease  in  expres¬ 
sion,  that  conditions  of  physical  poise  shall  be  established. 
Assuming  a  general  acceptance  of  this  statement,  may  I 


76 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


pass  at  once  to  the  suggestion  of  a  simple  and  practical 
method  of  securing  physical  poise,  and  thus  provide  this 
important  factor  in  the  development  of  ease  and  freedom? 
Stand,  and  relax  every  muscle  of  the  body.  You  may 
ask,  “How  can  I  relax  ?”  I  can  say  only,  “Relax,”  “Let 
go.”  But,  you  may  say,  “This  will  result  in  a  careless 
sag,  a  flabby  inertness.”  I  agree.  “Then,”  you  ask, 
“what  am  I  to  do?”  Assert,  amid  this  muscular  reaction 
the  “vital  centre”  of  the  body,  the  chest,  and  the  appear¬ 
ance  of  slovenliness  will  be  eliminated.  The  result  will  be, 
that  through  the  assertion  of  a  normally  developed  chest 
amid  muscular  relaxation,  control  and  freedom  will  be 
established  and  ease  experienced. 

The  persistent  application  of  the  principles  underlying 
physical  control  and  freedom,  by  the  regular  and  intel¬ 
ligent  practice  of  the  exercises  outlined  in  Chapter  XXVI, 
and  already  referred  to,  will  help  very  materially,  in  in¬ 
ducing  the  desirable  conditions  and  results  discussed  in 
this  chapter. 


ASSIGNMENTS 

I.  By  means  of  a  realization  of  the  purpose  and  the  prac¬ 
tice  of  exercises  prescribed  in  the  chapter  “Physical  Edu¬ 
cation,”  seek  to  establish  conditions  of  bodily  control,  ease, 
and  responsiveness. 

II.  Speaking  from  conditions  of  physical  ease,  and  with  no  con¬ 
scious  attempt  either  to  stimulate  or  to  repress  bodily 
expression,  converse  intimately  with 

(1)  One  person. 

(2)  Five  persons. 

(3)  Twenty-five  persons. 

(4)  One  hundred  persons. 

(5)  A  large  audience. 

The  increase  in  the  number  of  hearers  in  each  successive 
audience  should  induce  an  accentuation  and  extension  of 
the  gesturing. 


XV 


DELIBERATION 

MORE  haste,  less  speed”  is  a  permanent  comment 
on  the  ineffectiveness  of  hurry,  and  the  effective¬ 
ness  of  deliberation.  It  applies  with  equal  cogency  to 
public  speaking  as  to  any  other  phase  of  effort. 

May  I  endeavour  to  emphasize  the  desirability  of  delib¬ 
eration  by  illustrating  the  futility  of  hurry.  Have  you 
seen  someone  hurrying  along  with  an  armful  of  parcels; 
drop  one,  dive  impulsively  after  it;  drop  others,  plunge 
spasmodically  for  them;  drop  them  all,  and  then  scurry 
around  among  them,  like  a  pup  exploring  the  “innards” 
of  an  oldtime  feather  bed? 

At  intervals,  in  other  days,  a  new  man  would  invade 
the  business  life  of  my  old  home  town.  He  would  rush 
about,  “churn  things  up,”  and  attract  a  great  amount  of 
attention.  Of  course,  many  of  the  residents  would  say 
admiringly,  “Isn’t  he  a  hustler?”  “Isn’t  he  a  live  wire?” 
“He  is  just  the  very  man  this  town  has  needed.”  You 
have  seen  a  light  flare  up  brilliantly  and  die  out.  Well, 
when  the  “live  wire”  had  scurried  about  for  a  short  time, 
he  would  suddenly  depart.  I  was  back  there  the  other 
day.  Nearly  all  the  old  business  houses  are  still  in  exist¬ 
ence,  a  monument  to  system  and  order,  or,  if  you  will,  to 
the  futility  of  hurry. 

No  doubt,  some  of  your  friends  like  a  few  of  mine,  are 
always  in  a  hurry.  They  flutter  about  in  a  dizzying 
fashion.  They  are  always  on  some  mission  bent,  but 
accomplish  nothing,  or  very  little. 

77 


78 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


The  hurried  public  speaker  is  usually  a  purveyor  of 
“half-baked”  ideas.  He  does  not  take  time  clearly  to 
define  and  to  mature  his  thoughts.  His  mind  hastily 
leaps  to  a  new  idea,  before  he  has  fully  expressed  the  last. 
More  or  less  mental  confusion  results.  His  mind  is  apt 
to  pick  up  ideas  without  strict  regard  to  relevancy,  and 
to  run  off  on  tangents.  He  may  return  to  the  main  idea, 
and  he  may  not.  He  is  like  the  hunter  who  started  out 
to  hunt  for  a  bear;  saw  a  fox,  and  set  out  after  it;  then 
saw  a  squirrel,  and  forgot  the  fox.  He  may  have  re¬ 
turned  to  the  bear-hunt  and  he  may  not. 

Such  a  speaker’s  words  come  rushing  out  pell-mell. 
Each  tramples  on  the  heels  of  its  predecessor.  Articula¬ 
tion  is  slurred,  pauses  eliminated,  and  emphases  carelessly 
placed. 

The  results  of  accentuated  hurry  in  speaking  are  a  dis¬ 
orderly  tumult  of  ideas,  and  a  hurly-burly  of  words. 

Any  public  speaker  who  is  afflicted  with  nervous  tiaste, 
or  hurry,  should  cultivate  deliberation.  He  might,  also, 
with  profit,  ponder  the  statement  of  a  distinguished  British 
statesman,  who,  somewhat  sententiously,  defended  the 
slowness  attributed  to  the  Englishman  by  saying,  “The 
speed  with  which  you  move  does  not  matter  so  much, 
providing  you  are  going  in  the  right  direction.” 

It  is  popularly  assumed  that  deliberation  in  public 
speaking  is  equivalent  to  a  monotonous  pronunciation 
of  words,  one  by  one,  a  tiresome,  unvaried  drawing  out 
of  the  words.  This  is  not  so.  True  deliberation  does 
not  make  for  tediousness,  dulness,  and  hesitancy;  but 
rather  for  clearness,  vigor,  and  variety. 

Deliberation  in  speaking,  then,  is  not  secured  by  merely 
“slowing  up.”  This  simply  induces  monotony,  and 
monotony  is  the  death  of  all  interest  in  a  speech.  How, 
then,  is  it  secured?  You  will  recall,  that  in  talking, 
public  speaking,  or  any  other  natural  communication  of 


DELIBERATION 


79 


thoughts,  the  words  are  uttered  in  groups ;  that  the  words 
are  united  and  separated  into  groups  by  means  of  pauses; 
that  the  pause,  before  the  utterance  of  each  group  of 
words,  is  the  time  required  by  the  speaker  to  concentrate 
upon  and  acquire  the  idea;  that  the  pause,  after  the 
utterance  of  each  group  of  words,  is  the  time  spontane¬ 
ously  allowed  the  hearer  for  the  acquisition  of  the  idea. 
I  think  it  will  be  quite  obvious,  that  increased  concentra¬ 
tion  upon  each  idea  will  result  in  longer  pauses  and  a 
more  sustained  and  emphatic  utterance  of  the  words. 
This  is  deliberation. 

If  one  possessed  an  eager  temperament,  he  might  urge 
impatiently,  “Why  not  ignore  all  these  details,  and  say 
simply  and  directly,  ‘Think  deliberately  at  the  time  of 
speaking,  that  is  with  strong  and  sustained  concentration, 
and  you  will  speak  deliberately,  that  is  sustainedly  and 
emphatically.’  ” 

What  I  am  about  to  write,  in  conclusion,  may  have  been 
stated,  or  suggested,  before.  If  so,  it  will  bear  repetition. 
Deliberation  endows  delivery  with  clearness,  diversity, 
and  impressiveness;  it  invests  the  speaker  with  control, 
repose,  and  a  suggestion  of  reserve ;  and  it  enables  the 
hearers  to  follow  the  thought  intelligently,  inspires  them 
with  confidence  in  the  speaker,  and  disposes  them  to 
accept  his  conclusions. 

ASSIGNMENTS 

I.  The  length  of  time  that  the  attention  is  focused  upon  an 
idea  in  study,  conversation,  or  public  speaking  is  dependent 
upon  its  triviality  or  importance,  clearness  or  vagueness. 

Familiarize  yourself  with  each  of  the  following  passages, 
before  attempting  to  communicate  them.  Concentrate  the 
attention  of  your  hearers  upon  each  idea,  according  to  the 
degree  of  its  importance.  Allow  your  hearers  sufficient 
time  to  group  each  idea  before  you  pass  on  to  the  next. 


80 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


(a)  “Talent  has  always  something  worth  hearing,  tact  is 
sure  of  abundance  of  hearers ;  talent  may  obtain  a 
good  living,  tact  will  make  one;  talent  gets  a  good 
name,  tact  a  great  one ;  talent  convinces,  tact  converts ; 
talent  is  an  honor  to  a  profession,  tact  gains  honor 
from  the  profession/’ — London  Atlas. 

(b)  “  Fourscore  and  seven  years  ago  our  fathers  brought 
forth  upon  this  continent  a  new  nation,  conceived  in 
liberty  and  dedicated  to  the  proposition  that  all  men 
are  created  equal.  Now  we  are  engaged  in  a  great 
civil  wrar,  testing  whether  that  nation,  or  any  nation 
so  conceived  and  so  dedicated,  can  long  endure.  We 
are  met  on  a  great  battle-field  of  that  war.  We  have 
come  to  dedicate  a  portion  of  that  field  as  a  final  rest¬ 
ing  place  for  those  who  here  gave  their  lives  that  that 
nation  might  live.  It  is  altogether  fitting  and  proper 
that  we  should  do  this.  But  in  a  larger  sense  we 
cannot  dedicate,  we  cannot  consecrate,  we  cannot  hal¬ 
low  this  ground.  The  brave  men,  living  and  dead, 
who  struggled  here,  have  consecrated  it  far  above  our 
power  to  add  or  detract.  The  world  will  little  note, 
nor  long  remember,  what  we  say  here.  It  is  for  usr 
the  living,  rather  to  be  dedicated  here  to  the  unfin¬ 
ished  work  which  they  who  fought  here  have  thus  far 
so  nobly  advanced.  It  is  rather  for  us  to  be  here 
dedicated  to  the  great  task  remaining  before  us,  that 
from  these  honored  dead  we  take  increased  devotion 
to  that  cause  for  which  they  gave  the  last  full  measure 
of  devotion,  that  we  here  highly  resolve  that  these 
dead  shall  not  have  died  in  vain;  that  this  nation, 
under  God,  shall  have  a  new  birth  of  freedom,  and 
that  government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  and  for 
the  people,  shall  not  perish  from  the  earth.” 

Abraham  Lincoln. 

(c)  “Deep  is  the  solitude  of  millions,  who  with  hearts 
welling  forth  love,  have  none  to  love  them.  Deep  is 
the  solitude  of  those  who,  fighting  with  doubts  and 
darkness,  have  none  to  counsel  them.  But  deeper  than 
the  deepest  of  these  solitudes  is  that  which  broods 
over  childhood  under  the  passion  of  sorrow — bring- 


DELIBERATION 


81 


ing  before  it  at  intervals,  the  final  solitude  which 
watches  for  it,  and  is  waiting  for  it  within  the  gates 
of  death.  O  mighty  and  essential  solitude,  that  wast, 
and  art,  and  art  to  be,  thy  kingdom  is  made  perfect 
in  the  grave;  but  even  over  those  that  keep  watch 
outside  the  grave,  thou  stretchest  out  a  sceptre  of 
fascination/' — De  Quincy. 

II.  Apply  to  process  prescribed  in  I  and  prepare,  and  de¬ 
liver  the  following  with  increasing  degrees  of  deliberation : 

(a)  Describe  some  trivial  incident. 

(b)  Explain  the  parts  and  the  operation  of  some  mechani¬ 
cal  contrivance. 

(c)  Discuss  some  social,  national,  or  religious  question  or 
principle  concerning  which  you  have  profound  con¬ 
victions. 


XVI 


TACT 

SOME  persons  possess  the  happy  faculty  of  saying  or 
doing  the  appropriate  thing  at  the  right  time.  Those, 
who  are  less  fortunate  in  this  regard,  envy  the  mental 
discernment  that  enables  them  to  do  this.  The  question 
is  often  asked,  “What  is  the  source  of  this  quick  and 
intuitive  appreciation  of  what  is  fit  and  right  ?” 

A  tactful  person  is  both  imaginative  and  impression¬ 
able.  He  could  scarcely  be  the  one  without  being  the 
other.  It  follows,  naturally,  that  he  can  readily  enter  into 
the  experiences,  and  see  from  the  points  of  view  of  others. 
The  imagination  acts  spontaneously  and  immediately. 
The  public  speaker,  so  endowed,  is  enabled  to  appreciate 
the  opinions,  beliefs,  and  prejudices  of  his  hearers,  and 
thus,  to  avoid  giving  offence,  without  sacrificing  his  own 
position  on  the  question  under  consideration. 

A  tactful  speaker  is  not  an  oratorical  weather-cock. 
He  does  not  continually  change  his  point  of  view,  and 
seek  to  curry  favor  by  adopting  the  opinion  of  others. 
Such  a  one  excites  the  contempt  of  his  hearers.  If  the 
speaker  is  convinced  that  his  attitude  toward  the  question 
under  consideration  is  the  right  one,  he  must,  of  course, 
staunchly  adhere  to  his  convictions.  At  the  same  time, 
he  should  seek  to  effect  the  conversion  of  those  of  his 
hearers,  who  do  not  agree  with  him,  by  adroitly  offering 
convincing  reasons  in  support  of  that  which  he  advo¬ 
cates,  and  by  avoiding  direct  conflict  with  their  conclu¬ 
sions  and  convictions. 


82 


TACT 


83 


The  tactless  speaker  is  unimaginative  and  self-cen¬ 
tered.  He  is  biased,  unyielding,  and  impatient  of  the 
opinions  of  others.  Thus,  he  stirs  up  prejudice,  and,  on 
account  of  his  maladroitness,  fails  to  effect  his  purpose. 

The  undiscerning  are  apt  to  confuse  opportunism  with 
tact.  It  is  true  the  tactful  person  may  sacrifice  principle 
for  expediency.  He  may  apply  tactfulness  with  a  sinister 
purpose.  But  this  is  a  question  of  ethics,  not  of  tact. 
The  tactful  person  adroitly  arranges  to  effect  his  pur¬ 
pose  but  this  does  not  necessarily  involve  a  surrender  of 
principle. 

May  I  offer  a  couple  of  illustrations  of  the  application 
of  tact? 

The  classic  example  of  tact  in  public  speaking  is  Marc 
Antony’s  oration  at  the  funeral  of  Julius  Caesar.*  I 
would  advise  those,  who  are  interested,  to  read  it  again; 
and  to  keep  the  subject  of  this  chapter  in  mind  during 
the  perusal. 

Antony’s  purpose,  in  this  oration,  was  to  turn  the 
popular  enthusiasm  for  Brutus,  Cassius,  and  the  other 
conspirators,  into  popular  hatred  of  them ;  to  convert  the 
populace  of  Rome  from  blind  partisans  of  the  conspira¬ 
tors,  to  passionate  and  violent  enemies. 

Witness  the  scene :  A  tumultuous  and  disorderly 
rabble  fills  the  forum  in  Rome.  A  single  man  appears 
and  mounts  the  rostrum.  It  is  Marc  Antony,  the  friend 
of  Julius  Caesar.  The  mob  surges  clamorously  and 
menacingly  about  him.  He  stands  firmly  and  coura¬ 
geously  amid  all  the  hostility.  He  raises  his  hand.  The 
tumult  ceases.  Master  of  himself,  he  is  master  of  them. 
He  has  their  ear.  He  begins  to  speak.  Any  mistakes 
will  be  fatal.  This  is  a  singularly  unreasoning,  undis¬ 
criminating  mob.  It  tore  Cinna,  the  poet,  to  pieces,  for 
no  other  reason,  than  that  he  bore  the  same  name  as 
Cinna,  the  conspirator. 


84 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


Antony  does  not  patronize  the  populace.  He  does  not 
fawn  upon  them,  or  offer  them  any  extravagant  compli¬ 
ments.  He  is  no  wriggler,  this  Antony.  He  does  not 
hold  his  hearers  cheaply.  He  does  not  hold  himself 
cheaply.  With  simple  dignity,  he  salutes  them,  “Friends, 
Romans,  Countrymen.” 

No  man  knows  human  nature  better  than  he.  He 
understands  the  prejudices  of  these  Romans.  He  does 
not  rail  at  Brutus  and  Cassius,  their  present  idols.  That 
would  have  been  fatal  to  his  purpose.  He  does  not  sur¬ 
render  to  his  emotions  and  talk  heedlessly.  He  carefully 
selects.  “He  knows  what  to  say — or  better,  he  knows 
what  not  to  say.”  He  arouses  no  resentment.  While 
asserting  his  love  and  firm  friendship  for  Caesar,  he  ap¬ 
parently  assumes  a  reasonable  attitude  towards  the 
assassins. 

He  appeals  to  his  hearers’  sense  of  fairness  and  justice, 
in  their  judgment  of  Csesar.  Qesar  was  not  ambitious. 
Then  he  invokes  their  sympathy,  pity,  gratitude.  He  re¬ 
calls  Caesar’s  benefactions;  his  glories,  “battles,  sieges, 
fortunes;”  his  solicitude  for  their  welfare.  He  quickly 
senses  the  moods  of  his  listeners.  Always  he  says  the 
appropriate  thing  at  the  proper  time. 

Gradually  his  hearers  surrender  completely  to  the  spell 
of  his  oratory,  to  the  charm  of  his  tact.  Then,  in  an 
ecstasy  of  triumph,  he  hurls  them  forth  to  search  out  the 
conspirators,  “to  burn,  fire,  kill,  slay.” 

One  of  the  most  striking  modern  examples  of  the 
efficacy  of  tact  in  public  speaking  is  the  “Liverpool” 
speech  of  Henry  Ward  Beecher. f  During  the  progress 
of  the  Civil  War  in  the  United  States,  Beecher  went  to 
England  to  present  the  cause  of  the  North  to  the  British 
people.  There  was  considerable  antipathy  toward  the 
Union  cause  in  Liverpool  through  the  cutting  off  of  raw 
cotton  importations,  on  account  of  the  war.  The  feeling 


TACT 


85 


was  intensified  by  false  reports  concerning  Mr.  Beecher, 
that  had  been  sedulously  circulated.  In  addition,  a  gang 
of  hirelings  had  been  organized  by  Southern  sympathiz¬ 
ers  to  break  up  the  meeting. 

When  Beecher  appeared,  he  was  greeted  by  an  audi¬ 
ence,  the  majority  of  whom  were  determined  he  would 
not  speak.  By  taking  a  firm  and  manly  stand,  by  relax¬ 
ing  not  a  jot  or  tittle  from  his  position,  and  by  appealing 
to  British  fair  play  and  admiration  of  courage  and  hon¬ 
esty,  he  not  only  overcame  all  opposition  but  succeeded  in 
arousing  considerable  enthusiasm.  This  was  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  Beecher’s  success  in  influencing  British  opinion 
in  favor  of  the  Union  cause. 

The  following  quotation  from  the  London  Atlas  may 
be  appropriate :  “Talent  is  something,  but  tact  is  every¬ 
thing.  Talent  is  serious,  sober,  grave,  and  respectable; 
tact  is  all  that,  and  more  too.  It  is  not  a  sixth  sense,  but 
it  is  the  life  of  all  the  five.  It  is  the  open  eye,  the  quick 
ear,  the  judging  taste,  the  keen  smell,  and  the  lively  touch; 
It  is  the  interpreter  of  all  riddles,  the  surmounter  of  all 
difficulties,  the  remover  of  all  obstacles.  It  is  useful  in 
all  places,  and  at  all  times;  It  is  useful  in  solitude,  for  it 
shows  a  man  his  way  into  the  world ;  it  is  useful  in  society, 
for  it  shows  a  man  his  way  through  the  world. 

“Talent  is  power,  tact  is  skill  ;  talent  is  weight,  tact  is 
momentum;  talent  knows  what  to  do,  tact  knows  how  to 
do  it;  talent  makes  a  man  respectable,  tact  will  make  him 
respected;  talent  is  wealth,  tact  is  ready  money.” 

ASSIGNMENTS 

I.  Prepare  speeches  advocating  the  assigned  questions.  Let 
the  treatment  in  each  case  be  such  that  it  will  not  offend 
the  susceptibilities  of  the  suggested  hearers  nor  arouse 
their  antagonism  toward  the  speaker. 

(a)  “A  limited  monarchy,  as  understood  and  applied  in 


36 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


Great  Britain,  is  a  more  truly  democratic  form  of 
government  than  a  republic,”  to  an  American  audience. 

(b)  “Labor  Unions,”  to  an  audience  of  employers. 

(c)  “War  Time  Wages,”  to  an  audience  of  manufac¬ 
turers. 

(d)  “Open  Shop,”  to  au  audience  of  workers. 

(e)  “Free  Trade,”  to  an  audience  of  high  protectionists. 

(f)  “High  Tariff,”  to  an  audience  of  free  traders. 

(g)  “Private  Ownership,”  to  an  audience  of  those  who 
believe  in  state  control. 

*  Antony's  speech: 

Ant.  Friends,  Romans,  countrymen,  lend  me  your  ears: 

I  come  to  bury  Caesar,  not  to  praise  him. 

The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them; 

The  good  is  oft  interred  with  their  bones : 

So  let  it  be  with  Caesar.  The  noble  Brutus 
Hath  told  you  Caesar  was  ambitious : 

If  it  were  so,  it  was  a  grievous  fault ; 

And  grievously  hath  Caesar  answer’d  it. 

Here,  under  leave  of  Brutus  and  the  rest, — 

For  Brutus  is  an  honorable  man; 

So  are  they  all,  all  honorable  men, — 

Come  I  to  speak  in  Caesar’s  funeral. 

He  was  my  friend,  faithful  and  just  to  me: 

But  Brutus  says  he  was  ambitious; 

And  Brutus  is  an  honorable  man. 

He  hath  brought  many  captives  home  to  Rome, 

Whose  ransoms  did  the  general  coffers  fill: 

Did  this  in  Caesar  seem  ambitious  ? 

When  that  the  poor  have  cried,  Caesar  hath  wept: 

Ambition  should  be  made  of  sterner  stuff : 

Yet  Brutus  says  he  was  ambitious; 

And  Brutus  is  an  honorable  man. 

You  all  did  see  that  on  the  Lupercal 
I  thrice  presented  him  a  kingly  crown, 

Which  he  did  thrice  refuse.  Was  this  ambition? 

Yet  Brutus  says  he  was  ambitious; 

And,  sure,  he  is  an  honorable  man. 

I  speak  not  to  disprove  what  Brutus  spoke, 

But  here  I  am,  to  speak  what  I  do  know. 


TACT 


87 


You  all  did  love  him.  once, — not  without  cause; 

What  cause  withholds  you,  then,  to  mourn  for  him? 

O  judgment,  thou  art  fled  to  brutish  beasts, 

And  men  have  lost  their  reason !  Bear  with  me ; 

My  heart  is  in  the  coffin  there  with  Caesar, 

And  I  must  pause  till  it  come  back  to  me. 

1  Cit.  Methinks  there  is  much  reason  in  his  sayings. 

2  Cit.  If  thou  consider  rightly  of  the  matter, 

Caesar  has  had  great  wrong. 

3  Cit.  Has  he  not,  masters? 

I  fear  there  will  a  worse  come  in  his  place. 

4  Cit.  Mark’d  ye  his  words  ?  He  would  not  take  the  crown ; 
Therefore  ’tis  certain  he  was  not  ambitious. 

1  Cit.  If  it  be  found  so,  some  will  dear  abide  it. 

2  Cit.  Poor  soul !  his  eyes  are  red  as  fire  with  weeping. 

3  Cit.  There’s  not  a  nobler  man  in  Rome  than  Antony. 

4  Cit.  Now  mark  him;  he  begins  again  to  speak. 

Ant.  But  yesterday  the  word  of  Caesar  might 

Have  stood  against  the  world:  now  lies  he  there. 

And  none  so  poor  to  do  him  reverence. 

O  masters,  if  I  were  dispos’d  to  stir 
Your  hearts  and  minds  to  mutiny  and  rage, 

I  should  do  Brutus  wrong,  and  Cassius  wrong, 

Who,  you  all  know,  are  honorable  men. 

I  will  not  do  them  wrong:  I  rather  choose 
To  wrong  the  dead,  to  wrong  myself,  and  you, 

Than  I  will  wrong  such  honorable  men. 

But  here’s  a  parchment  with  the  seal  of  Caesar, — 

I  found  it  in  his  closet, — ’tis  his  will: 

Let  but  the  commons  hear  this  testament 
(Which,  pardon  me,  I  do  not  mean  to  read), 

And  they  would  go  and  kiss  dead  Caesar’s  wounds, 

And  dip  their  napkins  in  his  sacred  blood; 

Yea,  beg  a  hair  of  him  for  memory, 

And,  dying,  mention  it  within  their  wills, 

Bequeathing  it  as  a  rich  legacy 
Unto  their  issue. 

4  Cit.  We’ll  hear  the  will ;  read  it,  Mark  Antony. 

Citizens.  The  will,  the  will !  We  will  hear  Caesar’s  will. 
Ant.  Have  patience,  gentle  friends;  I  must  not  read  it: 

It  is  not  meet  you  know  how  Caesar  lov’d  you. 


88 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


You  are  not  wood,  you  are  not  stones,  but  men; 

And,  being  men,  hearing  the  will  of  Caesar, 

It  will  inflame  you,  it  will  make  you  mad. 

Tis  good  you  know  not  that  you  are  his  heirs; 

For,  if  you  should,  O  what  would  come  of  it ! 

4  Cit.  Read  the  will !  we’ll  hear  it,  Antony; 

You  shall  read  us  the  will — Caesar’s  will ! 

Ant.  Will  you  be  patient?  will  you  stay  awhile? 

I  have  o’ershot  myself,  to  tell  you  of  it. 

I  fear  I  wrong  the  honorable  men 

Whose  daggers  have  stabb’d  Caesar;  I  do  fear  it. 

4  Cit.  They  were  traitors :  honorable  men  ! 

Citizens.  The  will !  the  testament ! 

2  Cit.  They  were  villains,  murderers.  The  will !  read  the 
will! 

Ant.  You  will  compel  me,  then,  to  read  the  will? 

Then  make  a  ring  about  the  corpse  of  Caesar, 

And  let  me  show  you  him  that  made  the  will. 

Shall  I  descend?  and  will  you  give  me  leave? 

Citizens .  Come  down. 

2  Cit.  Descend.  [He  comes  down. 

3  Cit.  You  shall  have  leave. 

4  Cit.  A  ring !  stand  round. 

1  Cit .  Stand  from  the  hearse;  stand  from  the  body. 

2  Cit.  Room  for  Antony  ! — most  noble  Antony ! 

Ant.  Nay,  press  not  so  upon  me;  stand  far  off. 

Citizens.  Stand  back ;  room  !  bear  back. 

Ant.  If  you  have  tears,  prepare  to  shed  them  now. 

You  all  do  know  this  mantle:  I  remember 
The  first  time  ever  Caesar  put  it  on ; 

’Twas  on  a  summer’s  evening,  in  his  tent, 

That  day  he  overcame  the  Nervil. 

Look,  in  this  place  ran  Cassius’  dagger  through: 

See  what  a  rent  the  envious  Casca  made : 

Through  this  the  well-beloved  Brutus  stabb’d; 

And,  as  he  pluck’d  his  cursed  steel  away, 

Mark  how  the  blood  of  Caesar  follow’d  it, — 

As  rushing  out  of  doors,  to  be  resolv’d 
If  Brutus  so  unkindly  knock’d,  or  no; 

For  Brutus,  as  you  know,  was  Caesar’s  angel : 


TACT 


89 


Judge,  O  you  gods,  how  dearly  Caeser  lov'd  him ! 

This  was  the  most  unkindest  cut  of  all ; 

For,  when  the  noble  Caesar  saw  him  stab, 

Ingratitude,  more  strong  than  traitors'  arms, 

Quite  vanquish’d  him:  then  burst  his  mighty  heart; 

And,  in  his  mantle  muffling  up  his  face, 

Even  at  the  base  of  Pompey’s  statua, 

Which  all  the  while  ran  blood,  great  Caesar  fell. 

O,  what  a  fall  was  there,  my  countrymen ! 

Then  I,  and  you,  and  all  of  us  fell  down, 

Whilst  bloody  treason  flourish’d  over  us. 

O,  now  you  weep ;  and,  I  perceive,  you  feel 
The  dint  of  pity :  these  are  gracious  drops. 

Kind  souls,  what,  weep  you,  when  you  but  behold 
Our  Caesar’s  vesture  wounded?  Look  you  here, 

Here  is  himself,  marr’d,  as  you  see,  with  traitors. 

1  Cit.  O  piteous  spectacle ! 

2  Cit .  O  noble  Caesar ! 

3  Cit.  O  woful  day ! 

4  Cit.  O  traitors,  villains  ! 

1  Cit.  O  most  bloody  sight ! 

2  Cit.  We  will  be  reveng’d. 

Citizens.  Revenge, — about, — seek, — burn, — fire, — kill, — slay, — 
let  not  a  traitor  live  ! 

Ant.  Stay,  countrymen. 

1  Cit.  Peace  there !  hear  the  noble  Antony. 

2  Cit.  We’ll  hear  him,  we’ll  follow  him,  we’ll  die  with  him. 
Ant.  Good  friends,  sweet  friends,  let  me  not  stir  you  up 

To  such  a  sudden  flood  of  mutiny. 

They  that  have  done  this  deed  are  honorable: 

What  private  griefs  they  have,  alas,  I  know  not, 

That  made  them  do ’t ;  they’re  wise  and  honorable, 

And  will,  no  doubt,  with  reasons  answer  you. 

I  come  not,  friends,  to  steal  away  your  hearts : 

I  am  no  orator,  as  Brutus  is ; 

But,  as  you  know  me  all,  a  plain  blunt  man, 

That  love  my  friend ;  and  that  they  know  full  well 
That  gave  me  public  leave  to  speak  of  him. 

For  I  have  neither  wit,  nor  words,  nor  worth, 

Action,  nor  utterance,  nor  the  power  of  speech, 

To  stir  men’s  blood:  I  only  speak  right  on; 


90 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


I  tell  you  that  which  you  yourselves  do  know ; 

Show  you  sweet  Caesar’s  wounds,  poor,  poor  dumb  mouths, 

And  bid  them  speak  for  me :  but  were  I  Brutus, 

And  Brutus  Antony,  there  were  an  Antony 
Would  ruffle  up  your  spirits,  and  put  a  tongue 
In  every  wound  of  Caesar,  that  should  move 
The  stones  of  Rome  to  rise  and  mutiny. 

Citizens.  We’ll  mutiny. 

1  Cit.  We’ll  burn  the  house  of  Brutus. 

3  Cit.  Away,  then !  come,  seek  the  conspirators. 

Ant.  Yet  hear  me,  countrymen;  yet  hear  me  speak. 

Citizens.  Peace,  ho !  hear  Antony ;  most  noble  Antony. 

Ant.  Why,  friends,  you  go  to  do  you  know  not  what. 
Wherein  hath  Caeser  thus  deserv’d  your  loves? 

Alas,  you  know  not ;  I  must  tell  you,  then : 

You  have  forgot  the  will  I  told  you  of. 

Citizens.  Most  true ;  the  will ! — let’s  stay,  and  hear  the  will. 
Ant.  Here  is  the  will,  and  under  Caesar’s  seal. 

To  every  Roman  citizen  he  gives, 

To  every  several  man,  seventy-five  drachmas. 

2  Cit.  Most  noble  Caesar ! — we’ll  revenge  his  death. 

3  Cit.  O,  royal  Caesar  ! 

Ant.  Hear  me  with  patience. 

Citizens.  Peace,  ho ! 

Ant.  Moreover,  he  hath  left  you  all  his  walks. 

His  private  arbors,  and  new-planted  orchards, 

On  this  side  Tiber;  he  hath  left  them  you, 

And  to  your  heirs  for  ever;  common  pleasures. 

To  walk  abroad,  and  recreate  yourselves. 

Here  was  a  Caeser !  when  comes  such  another  ? 

1  Cit.  Never,  never. — Come,  away,  away! 

We’ll  burn  his  body  in  the  holy  place, 

And  with  the  brands  fire  the  traitors’  houses. 

Take  up  the  body. 

2  Cit.  Go,  fetch  fire. 

3  Cit.  Pluck  down  benches. 

4  Cit.  Pluck  down  forms,  windows,  any  thing. 

[ Exeunt  Citizens  with  the  body 
Ant.  Now  let  it  work: — Mischief,  thou  art  afoot, 

Take  thou  what  course  thou  wilt ! 


Shakespeare. 


TACT 


91 


f  Henry  Ward  Beecher’s  “Liverpool  Speech” : 

For  more  than  twenty-five  years  I  have  been  made  perfectly 
familiar  with  popular  assemblies  in  all  parts  of  my  country 
except  the  extreme  south.  There  has  not  for  the  whole  of  that 
time  been  a  single  day  of  my  life  when  it  would  have  been  safe 
for  me  to  go  south  of  Mason  and  Dixon’s  line  in  my  own 
country,  and  all  for  one  reason:  my  solemn,  earnest,  persistent 
testimony  against  that  which  I  consider  to  be  the  most  atrocious 
thing  under  the  sun — the  system  of  American  slavery  in  a  great, 
free  republic.  [Cheers.]  I  have  passed  through  that  early 
period  when  right  of  free  speech  was  denied  to  me.  Again  and 
again  I  have  attempted  to  address  audiences  that,  for  no  other 
crime  than  that  of  free  speech,  visited  me  with  all  manner  of 
contumelious  epithets;  and  now  since  I  have  been  in  England, 
although  I  have  met  with  greater  kindness  and  courtesy  on  the 
part  of  most  than  I  deserved,  yet,  on  the  other  hand,  I  perceive 
that  the  Southern  influence  prevails  to  some  extent  in  England. 
[Applause  and  uproar.]  It  is  my  old  acquaintance;  I  understand 
it  perfectly — [laughter] — and  I  have  always  held  it  to  be  an 
unfailing  truth  that  where  a  man  had  a  cause  that  would  bear 
examination  he  was  perfectly  willing  to  have  it  spoken  about. 
[Applause.]  Therefore,  when  I  saw  so  much  nervous  appre¬ 
hension  that,  if  I  were  permitted  to  speak — [hisses  and  ap¬ 
plause] — when  I  found  they  were  afraid  to  have  me  speak — 
[hisses,  laughter,  and  “No,  no!”] — when  I  found  that  they  con¬ 
sidered  my  speaking  damaging  to  their  cause — [applause] — when 
I  found  that  they  appealed  from  facts  and  reasonings  to  mob 
law — [applause  and  uproar] — I  said:  No  man  need  tell  me  what 
the  heart  and  secret  counsel  of  these  men  are.  They  tremble 
and  are  afraid.  [Applause,  laughter,  hisses.  “No,  no!”  and  a 
voice,  “New  York  mob.”] 

Now,  personally,  it  is  a  matter  of  very  little  consequence  to  me 
whether  I  speak  here  to-night  or  not.  [Laughter  and  cheers.] 
But  one  thing  is  very  certain — if  you  do  permit  me  to  speak 
here  to-night  you  will  hear  very  plain  talking.  [Applause  and 
hisses.]  You  will  not  find  a  man, — you  will  not  find  me  to  be 
a  man  that  dared  to  speak  about  Great  Britain  three  thousand 
miles  off,  and  then  is  afraid  to  speak  to  Great  Britain  when  he 
stands  on  her  shores.  [Immense  applause  and  hisses.]  And  if 
I  do  not  mistake  the  tone  and  the  temper  of  Englishmen,  they 
had  rather  have  a  man  who  opposes  them  in  a  manly  way — 
[applause  from  all  parts  of  the  hall] — than  a  sneak  that  agrees 


92 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


with  them  in  an  unmanly  way.  [Applause  and  “Bravo !”]  If 
I  can  carry  you  with  me  by  sound  convictions,  I  shall  be  im¬ 
mensely  glad;  but  if  I  can  not  carry  you  with  me  by  facts  and 
sound  arguments,  I  do  not  wish  you  to  go  with  me  at  all ;  and 
all  that  I  ask  is  simply  fair  play.  [Applause  and  a  voice,  “You 
shall  have  it,  too.”]  Those  of  you  who  are  kind  enough  to  wish 
to  favor  my  speaking — and  you  will  observe  that  my  voice  is 
slightly  husky,  from  having  spoken  almost  every  night  in  suc¬ 
cession  for  some  time  past — those  who  wish  to  hear  me  will  do 
me  the  kindness  simply  to  sit  still  and  to  keep  still ;  and  I  and 
my  friends  the  Secessionists  will  make  all  the  noise.  [Laughter.] 

There  are  two  dominant  races  in  modern  history:  the  Ger¬ 
manic  and  the  Romanic  races.  The  Germanic  races  tend  to 
personal  liberty,  to  a  sturdy  individualism,  to  civil  and  to  political 
liberty.  The  Romanic  race  tends  to  absolutism  in  government; 
it  is  clannish ;  it  loves  chieftains ;  it  develops  a  people  that  crave 
strong  and  showy  governments  to  support  and  plan  for  them. 
The  Anglo-Saxon  race  belongs  to  the  great  German  family,  and 
is  a  fair  exponent  of  its  peculiarities.  The  Anglo-Saxon  carries 
self-government  and  self-development  with  him  wherever  he 
goes.  He  has  popular  government  and  popular  industry;  for 
the  effects  of  a  generous  civil  liberty  are  not  seen  a  whit  more 
plainly  in  the  good  order,  in  the  intelligence,  and  in  the  virtue 
of  a  self-governing  people,  than  in  their  amazing  enterprise  and 
the  scope  and  power  of  their  creative  industry.  The  power  to 
create  riches  is  just  as  much  a  part  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  virtues 
as  the  power  to  create  good  order  and  social  safety.  The  things 
required  for  prosperous  labor,  prosperous  manufactures,  and 
prosperous  commerce  are  three:  first,  liberty;  secondly,  liberty; 
thirdly,  liberty — but  these  are  not  merely  the  same  liberty,  as  I 
shall  show  you. 

First,  there  must  be  liberty  to  follow  those  laws  of  business 
which  experience  has  developed,  without  imposts  or  restrictions, 
or  governmental  intrusions.  Business  simply  wants  to  be  let 
alone.  [“Hear,  hear !”] 

Then,  secondly,  there  must  be  liberty  to  distribute  and  exchange 
products  of  industry  in  any  market  without  burdensome  tariffs, 
without  imposts,  and  without  vexatious  regulations.  There  must 
be  these  two  liberties — liberty  to  create  wealth,  as  the  makers 
of  it  think  best  according  to  the  light  and  experience  which  busi¬ 
ness  has  given  them;  and  then  liberty  to  distribute  what  they 
have  created  without  unnecessary  vexatious  burdens.  The  com- 


TACT 


93 


prehensive  law  of  the  ideal  industrial  condition  of  the  world  is 
free  manufacture  and  free  trade.  ["Hear,  hear !”  A  voice, 
"The  Murrill  tariff.”] 

I  have  said  there  were  three  elements  of  liberty.  The  third  is 
the  necessity  of  an  intelligent  and  free  race  of  customers.  There 
must  be  freedom  among  producers ;  there  must  be  freedom  among 
the  distributers;  there  must  be  freedom  among  the  customers. 
It  may  not  have  occurred  to  you  that  it  makes  any  difference 
what  one’s  customers  are;  but  it  does,  in  all  regular  and  pro¬ 
longed  business.  The  condition  of  the  customer  determines  how 
much  he  will  buy,  determines  of  what  sort  he  will  buy.  Poor 
and  ignorant  people  buy  little  and  that  of  the  poorest  kind.  The 
richest  and  the  intelligent,  having  the  more  means  to  buy,  buy 
the  most,  and  always  buy  the  best. 

Here,  then,  are  the  three  liberties :  liberty  of  the  producer, 
liberty  of  the  distributer,  and  liberty  of  the  consumer.  The  first 
two  need  no  discussion — they  have  been  long,  thoroughly,  and 
brilliantly  illustrated  by  the  political  economists  of  Great  Britain, 
and  by  her  eminent  statesmen ;  but  it  seems  to  me  that  enough 
attention  has  not  been  directed  to  the  third,  and,  with  your 
patience,  I  will  dwell  on  that  for  a  moment,  before  proceeding  to 
other  topics. 

It  is  a  necessity  of  every  manufacturing  and  commercial  peo¬ 
ple  that  their  customers  should  be  very  wealthy  and  intelligent. 
Let  us  put  the  subject  before  you  in  the  familiar  light  of  your 
own  local  experience.  To  whom  do  the  tradesmen  of  Liverpool 
sell  the  most  goods  at  the  highest  profit?  To  the  ignorant  and 
poor,  or  to  the  educated  and  prosperous?  [A  voice,  "To  the 
Southerner.”  Laughter.]  The  poor  man  buys  simply  for  his 
body;  he  buys  food,  he  buys  clothing,  he  buys  fuel,  he  buys 
lodging.  His  rule  is  to  buy  the  least  and  the  cheapest  that  he 
can.  He  goes  to  the  store  as  seldom  as  he  can, — he  brings 
away  as  little  as  he  can — [much  laughter] — and  he  buys  for  the 
least  he  can.  Poverty  is  not  a  misfortune  to  the  poor  only  who 
suffer  it,  but  it  is  more  or  less  a  misfortune  to  all  with  whom 
they  deal. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  man  well  off — how  is  it  with  him?  He 
buys  in  far  greater  quantity.  He  can  afford  to  do  it ;  he  has  the 
money  to  pay  for  it.  He  buys  in  far  greater  variety,  because 
he  seeks  to  gratify  not  merely  physical  wants,  but  also  mental 
wants.  He  buys  for  the  satisfaction  of  sentiment  and  taste,  as 
well  as  of  sense.  He  buys  silk,  wool,  flax,  cotton;  he  buys  all 


94 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


metals — iron,  silver,  gold,  platinum;  in  short  he  buys  for  all 
necessities  and  of  all  substances.  But  that  is  not  all.  He  buys 
a  better  quality  of  goods.  He  buys  richer  silks,  finer  cottons, 
higher  grained  wools.  Now,  a  rich  silk  means  so  much  skill  and 
care  of  somebody’s  that  has  been  expended  upon  it  to  make  it 
finer  and  richer;  and  so  of  cotton,  and  so  of  wool.  That  is,  the 
price  of  the  finer  goods  runs  back  to  the  very  beginning,  and 
remunerates  the  workman  as  well  as  the  merchant.  Indeed,  the 
whole  laboring  community  is  as  much  interested  and  profited  as 
the  mere  merchant,  in  this  buying  and  selling  of  the  higher 
grades  in  the  greater  varieties  and  quantities. 

The  law  of  price  is  the  skill ;  and  the  amount  of  skill  expended 
in  the  work  is  as  much  for  the  market  as  are  the  goods.  A  man 
comes  to  the  market  and  says,  “I  have  a  pair  of  hands”;  and  he 
obtains  the  lowest  wages.  Another  man  comes  and  says,  “I  have 
something  more  than  a  pair  of  hands — I  have  truth  and  fidelity” ; 
he  gets  a  higher  price.  Another  man  comes  and  says,  “I  have 
something  more;  I  have  hands  and  strength,  and  fidelity,  and 
skill.”  He  gets  more  than  either  of  the  others.  The  next  man 
comes  and  says,  “I  have  got  hands  and  strength,  and  skill,  and 
fidelity;  but  my  hands  work  more  than  that.  They  know  how 
to  create  things  for  the  fancy,  for  the  affections,  for  the  moral 
sentiments” ;  and  he  gets  more  than  any  of  the  others.  The  last 
man  comes  and  says,  “I  have  all  these  qualities,  and  have  them 
so  highly  that  it  is  a  peculiar  genius”;  and  genius  carries  the 
whole  market  and  gets  the  highest  price.  [Loud  applause.]  So 
that  both  the  workman  and  the  merchant  are  profited  by  having 
purchasers  that  demand  quality,  variety,  and  quantity. 

Now,  if  this  be  so  in  the  town  or  the  city,  it  can  only  be  so 
because  it  is  a  law.  This  is  the  specific  development  of  a  general 
or  universal  law,  and  therefore  we  should  expect  to  find  it  as  true 
of  a  nation  as  of  a  city  like  Liverpool.  I  know  it  is  so,  and  you 
know  that  it  is  true  of  all  the  world;  and  it  is  just  as  important 
to  have  customers  educated,  intelligent,  moral,  and  rich,  out  of 
Liverpool  as  it  is  in  Liverpool.  [Applause.]  They  are  able  to 
buy;  they  want  variety,  they  want  the  very  best;  and  those  are 
the  customers  you  want.  That  nation  is  the  best  customer  that 
is  freest,  because  freedom  works  prosperity,  industry,  and 
wealth.  Great  Britain,  then,  aside  from  moral  considerations, 
has  a  direct  commercial  and  pecuniary  interest  in  the  liberty, 
civilization,  and  wealth  of  every  people  and  every  nation  on  the 
globe.  [Loud  applause.] 


TACT 


95 


You  have  also  an  interest  in  this,  because  you  are  a  moral  and 
a  religious  people.  [“Oh,  oh !”  Laughter  and  applause.]  You 
desire  it  from  the  highest  motives,  and  godliness  is  profitable  in 
all  things,  having  the  promise  of  the  life  that  is,  as  well  as  of 
that  which  is  to  come;  but  if  there  were  no  hereafter,  and  if 
man  had  no  progress  in  this  life,  and  if  there  were  no  question 
of  moral  growth  at  all,  it  would  be  worth  your  while  to  protect 
civilization  and  liberty,  merely  as  a  commercial  speculation.  To 
evangelize  has  more  than  a  moral  and  religious  import — it  comes 
back  to  temporal  relations.  Wherever  a  nation  that  is  crushed, 
cramped,  degraded  under  despotism,  is  struggling  to  be  free,  you, 
Leeds,  Sheffield,  Manchester,  Paisley,  all  have  an  interest  that 
that  nation  should  be  free.  When  depressed  and  backward 
people  demand  that  they  may  have  a  chance  to  rise — Hungary, 
Italy,  Poland — it  is  a  duty  for  humanity’s  sake,  it  is  a  duty  for 
the  highest  moral  motives,  to  sympathize  with  them;  but  besides 
all  these  there  is  a  material  and  an  interested  reason  why  you 
should  sympathize  with  them.  Pounds  and  pence  join  with  con¬ 
science  and  with  honor  in  this  design. 

Now,  Great  Britain’s  chief  want  is — what?  They  have  said 
that  your  chief  want  is  cotton.  I  deny  it.  Your  chief  want  is 
consumers.  [Applause  and  hisses.]  You  have  got  skill,  you  have 
got  capital,  and  you  have  got  machinery  enough  to  manufacture 
goods  for  the  whole  population  of  the  globe.  You  could  turn 
out  fourfold  as  much  as  you  do,  if  you  only  had  the  market  to 
sell  in.  It  is  not  therefore  so  much  the  want  of  fabric,  though 
there  may  be  a  temporary  obstruction  of  that;  but  the  principal 
and  increasing  want — increasing  from  year  to  year — is,  where 
shall  we  find  men  to  buy  what  we  can  manufacture  so  fast? 
[Interruption  over  a  voice,  “The  Murril  tariff.”  Applause.] 
There  is  in  this  a  great  and  sound  principle  of  political 

economy.  If  the  South  should  be  rendered  independent - 

Well,  you  have  had  your  turn;  now  let  me  have  mine  again. 
[Loud  applause  and  laughter.]  It  is  a  little  inconvenient  to  talk 
against  the  wind;  but,  after  all,  if  you  will  just  keep  good 
natured — I  am  not  going  to  lose  my  temper;  will  you  watch 
yours  ?  Besides  all  that,  it  rests  me,  and  gives  me  a  chance,  you 
know,  to  get  my  breath.  [Applause  and  hisses.]  And  I  think 
that  the  bark  of  those  men  is  worse  than  their  bite.  They  do 
not  mean  any  harm;  they  do  not  know  any  better.  [Loud  ap¬ 
plause,  hisses  and  continued  uproar.] 

What  will  be  the  result  if  this  present  struggle  shall  evenuate 


96 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


in  the  separation  of  America,  and  making  the  South — [loud 
applause,  hooting  and  cries  of  “Bravo !”] — a  slave  territory 
exclusively — [cries  of  “No,  no!”  and  laughter] — and  the  North 
a  free  territory;  what  will  be  the  first  result?  You  will  lay  the 
foundation  for  carrying  the  slave  population  clear  through  to 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  That  is  the  first  step.  There  is  not  a  man 
who  has  been  a  leader  of  the  South  any  time  within  these  twenty 
years,  that  has  not  had  this  for  a  plan.  It  was  for  this  that 
Texas  was  invaded,  first  by  colonists,  next  by  marauders,  until 
it  was  wrested  from  Mexico.  It  was  for  this  that  they  engaged 
in  the  Mexican  War  itself,  by  which  the  vast  territory  reaching 
to  the  Pacific  was  added  to  the  Union.  Never  have  they  for  a 
moment  given  up  the  plan  of  spreading  the  American  institution, 
as  they  call  it,  straight  through  toward  the  West,  until  the  slave 
who  has  washed  his  feet  in  the  Atlantic  shall  be  carried  to  wash 
them  in  the  Pacific.  [Cries  of  “Question”  and  uproar.]  There! 
I  have  got  that  statement  out,  and  you  can  not  put  it  back. 
[Laughter  and  applause.] 

Now,  let  us  consider  the  prospect.  If  the  South  became  a  slave 
empire,  what  relation  will  it  have  to  you  as  a  customer?  [A 
voice,  “Or  any  other  man.”  Laughter.]  It  would  be  an  empire 
of  twelve  millions  of  people.  Of  these,  eight  millions  are  white 
and  four  millions  black.  [A  voice,  “How  many  have  you  got?”] 
Consider  that  one-third  of  the  whole  are  the  miserably  poor, 
unbuying  blacks.  You  do  not  manufacture  much  for  them.  You 
have  not  got  machinery  coarse  enough.  [Laughter  and  “No.”] 
Your  labor  is  too  skilled  by  far  to  manufacture  bagging  and 
linsey-woolsey.  [A  Southerner,  “We  are  going  to  free  them 
every  one.”]  Then  you  and  I  agree  exactly.  One  other  third 
consists  of  a  poor,  unskilled,  degraded  white  population ;  and  the 
remainder  one-third,  which  is  a  large  allowance,  we  will  say, 
intelligent  and  rich.  Now  here  are  twelve  millions  of  people, 
and  only  one-third  of  them  are  customers  that  can  afford  to  buy 
the  kind  of  goods  that  you  bring  to  market.  [Interruption  and 
uproar.] 

My  friends,  I  saw  a  man  once,  who  was  a  little  late  at  a  rail¬ 
way  station,  chase  an  express  train.  He  did  not  catch  it.  If 
you  are  going  to  stop  this  meeting,  you  have  got  to  stop  it  before 
I  speak;  for  after  I  have  got  the  things  out,  you  may  chase  as 
long  as  you  please — you  will  not  catch  them.  But  there  is  luck 
in  leisure;  I’m  going  to  take  it  easy.  Two-thirds  of  the  popula¬ 
tion  of  the  Southern  States  to-day  are  non-purchasers  of  English 


TACT 


97 


goods.  You  must  recollect  another  fact — namely,  that  this  is 
going  on  clear  through  to  the  Pacific  Ocean;  and  if  by  sympathy 
or  help  you  establish  a  slave  empire,  you  sagacious  Britons — if 
you  like  it  better,  then,  I  will  leave  the  adjective  out — are  busy  in 
favoring  the  establishment  of  an  empire  from  ocean  to  ocean 
that  should  have  fewest  customers  and  the  largest  non-buying 
population.  [“No,  no!’’  A  voice,  “I  thought  it  was  a  happy 
people  that  population  parted.”] 

Now,  for  instance,  just  look  at  this — the  difference  between 
free  labor  and  slave  labor  to  produce  cultivated  land.  The  State 
of  Virginia  has  15,000  more  square  miles  of  land  than  the  State 
of  New  York;  but  Virginia  has  only  15,000  square  miles  im¬ 
proved,  while  New  York  has  20,000  square  miles  improved.  Of 
unimproved  land  Virginia  has  about  23,000  square  miles,  and 
New  York  only  about  10,000  square  miles.  These  facts  speak 
volumes  as  to  the  capacity  of  the  territory  to  bear  population. 
The  smaller  is  the  quantity  of  soil  uncultivated,  the  greater  is  the 
density  of  the  population ;  and  upon  that  their  value  as  customers 
depends.  Let  us  take  the  States  of  Maryland  and  Massachusetts. 
Maryland  has  2,000  more  square  miles  of  land  than  Massachu¬ 
setts;  but  Maryland  has  about  4,000  square  miles  of  land  im¬ 
proved,  Massachusetts  has  3,200  square  miles.  Maryland  has 
2,800  unimproved  square  miles  of  land,  while  Massachusetts  has 
but  1,800  square  miles  unimproved.  But  these  two  are  little 
States, — let  us  take  greater  States :  Pennsylvania  and  Georgia. 
The  State  of  Georgia  has  12,000  more  square  miles  of  land 
than  Pennsylvania.  Georgia  has  only  about  9,800  square  miles  of 
improved  land;  Pennsylvania  has  13,400  square  miles  of  improved 
land,  or  about  2,300,000  acres  more  than  Georgia.  Georgia  has 
about  25,600  square  miles  of  unimproved  land,  and  Pennsyl¬ 
vania  has  only  10,400  square  miles,  or  about  10,000,000  acres 
less  of  imimproved  land  than  Georgia.  The  one  is  a  slave  State 
and  the  other  is  a  free  State.  I  do  not  want  you  to  forget  such 
statistics  as  those,  having  once  heard  them. 

Now,  what  can  England  make  for  the  poor  white  population 
of  such  a  future  empire,  and  for  her  slave  population?  What 
carpets,  what  linens,  what  cottons  can  you  sell  to  them?  What 
machines,  what  looking-glasses,  what  combs,  what  leather,  what 
books,  what  pictures,  what  engravings?  [A  voice,  “We’ll  sell 
them  ships.”]  You  may  sell  ships  to  a  few,  but  what  ships  can 
you  sell  to  two-thirds  of  the  population  of  poor  whites  and 
blacks  ?  A  little  bagging  and  a  little  linsey-woolsey,  a  few  whips 


98 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


and  manacles,  are  all  that  you  can  sell  for  the  slave.  [Great 
applause  and  uproar.]  This  very  day,  in  the  slave  States  of 
America  there  are  eight  millions  out  of  twelve  millions  that  are 
not,  and  can  not  be  your  customers  from  the  very  laws  of  trade. 

Do  you  sympathize  with  the  minority  in  Rome  or  the  majority 
in  Italy?  [A  voice,  “With  Italy.”]  To-day  the  South  is  the 
minority  in  America,  and  they  are  fighting  for  independence ! 
For  what?  [Uproar.  A  voice,  “Three  cheers  for  independ¬ 
ence  !”  Hisses.]  I  could  wish  so  much  bravery  had  a  better 
cause,  and  that  so  much  self-denial  had  been  less  deluded;  that 
the  poisonous  and  venomous  doctrine  of  State  rights  might  have 
been  kept  aloof ;  that  so  many  gallant  spirits,  such  as  Jackson, 
might  still  have  lived.  [Great  applause  and  loud  cheers,  again 
and  again  renewed.]  The  force  of  these  facts,  historical  and 
incontrovertible,  can  not  be  broken,  except  by  diverting  attention 
by  an  attack  upon  the  North.  It  is  said  that  the  North  is  fight¬ 
ing  for  the  Union,  and  not  for  emancipation.  The  North  is 
fighting  for  the  Union,  for  that  ensures  emancipation.  [Loud 
cheers,  “Oh,  oh!”  “No,  no!”  and  cheers.] 

A  great  many  men  say  to  ministers  of  the  Gospel :  “You  pre¬ 
tend  to  be  preaching  and  working  for  the  love  of  the  people. 
Why,  you  are  all  the  time  preaching  for  the  sake  of  the  Church.” 
What  does  the  minister  say?  “It  is  by  means  of  the  Church 
that  we  help  the  people,”  and  when  men  say  that  we  are  fighting 
for  the  Union,  I,  too,  say  that  we  are  fighting  for  the  Union. 
[“Hear,  hear !”  and  a  voice,  “That’s  right.”]  But  the  motive 
determines  the  value;  and  why  are  we  fighting  for  the  Union? 
Because  we  never  shall  forget  the  testimony  of  our  enemies. 
They  have  gone  off  declaring  that  the  Union  in  the  hands  of  the 
North  was  fatal  to  slavery.  [Loud  applause.]  There  is  testi¬ 
mony  in  court  for  you.  [A  voice,  “See  that!”  and  laughter.] 

In  the  first  place  I  am  ashamed  to  confess  that  such  was  the 
thoughtlessness — [interruption] — such  was  the  stupor  of  the 
North — [renewed  interruption] — you  will  get  a  word  at  a  time; 
to-morrow  will  let  folks  see  what  it  is  you  do  not  want  to  hear — 
that  for  a  period  of  twenty-five  years  she  went  to  sleep,  and 
permitted  herself  to  be  drugged  and  poisoned  with  the  Southern 
prejudice  against  black  men.  [Applause  and  uproar.] 

Now  as  to  those  States  that  had  passed  “black”  laws,  as  we 
call  them ;  they  are  filled  with  Southern  emigrants.  The  southern 
parts  of  Ohio,  the  southern  part  of  Indiana,  where  I  myself 
lived  for  years,  and  which  I  know  like  a  book,  the  southern  part 


TACT 


99 


of  Illinois,  where  Mr.  Lincoln  lives — [great  uproar! — these  parts 
are  largely  settled  by  emigrants  from  Kentucky,  Tennessee, 
Georgia,  Virginia,  and  North  Carolina,  and  it  was  their  vote, 
or  the  Northern  votes  pandering  for  political  reasons  to  theirs, 
that  passed  in  those  States  the  infamous  “black”  laws;  and  the 
Republicans  in  these  States  have  a  record,  clean  and  white,  as 
having  opposed  these  laws  in  every  instance  as  “infamous.” 
Now  as  to  the  State  of  New  York;  it  is  asked  whether  a  negro 
is  not  obliged  to  have  a  certain  freehold  property,  or  a  certain 
amount  of  property,  before  he  can  vote.  It  is  so  still  in  North 
Carolina  and  Rhode  Island  for  white  folks — it  is  so  in  New 
York  State.  [Mr.  Beecher’s  voice  slightly  failed  him  here,  and 
he  was  interrupted  by  a  person  who  tried  to  imitate  him.  Cries 
of  “Shame !”  and  “Turn  him  out !”! 

No  man  can  unveil  the  future;  no  man  can  tell  what  revolu¬ 
tions  are  about  to  break  upon  the  world;  no  man  can  tell  what 
destiny  belongs  to  France,  nor  to  any  of  the  European  powers; 
but  one  thing  is  certain,  that  in  the  exigencies  of  the  future 
there  will  be  combinations  and  recombinations,  and  that  those 
nations  that  are  of  the  same  faith,  the  same  blood,  and  the  same 
substantial  interests,  ought  not  to  be  alienated  from  each  other, 
but  ought  to  stand  together.  [Immense  cheering  and  hisses.] 
I  do  not  say  that  you  ought  not  to  be  in  the  most  friendly  alliance 
with  France  or  with  Germany;  but  I  do  say  that  your  own 
children,  the  offspring  of  England,  ought  to  be  nearer  to  you 
than  any  people  of  strange  tongue.  [A  voice,  “Degenerate  sons,” 
applause  and  hisses;  another  voice,  “What  about  the  Trent?”! 
If  there  had  been  any  feelings  of  bitterness  in  America,  let  me 
tell  you  that  they  had  been  excited,  rightly  or  wrongly,  under  the 
impression  that  Great  Britain  was  going  to  intervene  between 
us  and  our  own  lawful  struggle.  [A  voice,  “No!”  and  applause.] 
With  the  evidence  that  there  is  no  such  intention  all  bitter  feel¬ 
ings  will  pass  away.  [Applause.] 

We  do  not  agree  with  the  recent  doctrine  of  neutrality  as  a 
question  of  law.  But  it  is  past,  and  we  are  not  disposed  to  raise 
that  question.  We  accept  it  now  as  a  fact,  and  we  say  that  the 
utterance  of  Lord  Russell  at  Blairgowrie — [applause,  hisses,  and 
a  voice,  “What  about  Lord  Brougham?”] — together  with  the 
declaration  of  the  government  in  stopping  war-steamers  here — 
[great  uproar  and  applause] — have  gone  far  toward  quieting 
every  fear  and  removing  every  apprehension  from  our  minds. 
[Uproar  and  shouts  of  applause.]  And  now  in  the  future  it  is 


100 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


the  work  of  every  good  man  and  patriot  not  to  create  divisions, 
but  to  do  the  things  that  will  make  for  peace.  [“Oh,  oh !”  and 
laughter.]  On  our  part  it  shall  be  done.  [Applause  and  hisses, 
and  “No,  no !”] 

On  your  part  it  ought  to  be  done;  and  when  in  any  of  the 
convulsions  that  come  upon  the  world,  Great  Britain  finds  her¬ 
self  struggling  single-handed  against  the  gigantic  powers  that 
spread  oppression  and  darkness — [applause,  hisses,  and  uproar] — 
there  ought  to  be  such  cordiality  that  she  can  turn  and  say  to 
her  first-born  and  most  illustrious  child,  “Come !”  [“Hear, 
hear !”  Applause,  tremendous  cheers,  and  uproar.]  I  will  not 
say  that  England  can  not  again,  as  hitherto,  single-handed  man¬ 
age  any  power — [applause  and  uproar] — but  I  will  say  that 
England  and  America  together  for  religion  and  liberty — [a 
voice,  “Soap,  soap,”  uproar  and  great  applause] — are  a  match 
for  the  world.  [Applause;  a  voice,  “They  don’t  want  any  more 
soft  soap.”]  Now,  gentlemen  and  ladies — [a  voice,  “Sam  Slick”; 
and  another  voice,  “Ladies  and  gentlemen,  if  you  please!”] — 
when  I  came  I  was  asked  whether  I  would  answer  questions, 
and  I  very  readily  consented  to  do  so,  as  I  had  in  other  places; 
but  I  will  tell  you  it  was  because  I  expected  to  have  the  oppor¬ 
tunity  of  speaking  with  some  sort  of  ease  and  quiet.  [A  voice, 
“So  you  have.”] 

I  have  for  an  hour  and  half  spoken  against  a  storm — [“Hear, 
hear !”] — and  you  yourselves  are  witnesses  that,  by  the  interrup¬ 
tion,  I  have  been  obliged  to  strive  with  my  voice,  so  that  I  no 
longer  have  the  power  to  control  this  assembly.  [Applause.] 
And  although  I  am  in  spirit  perfectly  willing  to  answer  any 
question,  and  more  than  glad  of  the  chance,  yet  I  am  by  this  very 
unnecessary  opposition  to-night  incapacitated  physically  from 
doing  it.  Ladies  and  gentlemen,  I  bid  you  good  evening. 

Henry  Ward  Beecher . 


XVII 


DIGNITY 

NOT  long  ago,  I  found  a  venerable  friend  of  mine  in 
a  reminiscent  mood.  His  memory  extended  into 
the  early  lyceum  days.  He  had  heard  many  of  the  orators, 
whose  names  are  recalled  at  frequent  intervals,  by  the 
industrious  compilers  of  anthologies  of  great  orations. 

Among  the  many  anecdotes  and  descriptions  of  public 
speeches  of  other  days,  within  his  experience,  I  was  par¬ 
ticularly  interested  in  his  vivid  contrast  of  the  platform 
attitudes  of  two  orators  of  international  reputation. 

One  was  an  authority  on  social  topics.  He  was  very 
particular  about  the  platform  or  stage  settings  for  a 
lecture.  He  insisted  that  they  must  be  arranged  accord¬ 
ing  to  his  directions.  Then  he  requested  that  the  lighting 
should  be  so  adjusted  as  to  bring  him  into  the  high  light. 
When  all  the  arrangements,  that  he  required,  were  made, 
he  appeared  before  the  audience  with  all  the  “pomp  and 
circumstance”  of  the  stage  entry  of  the  star  in  a  tragedy, 
when  more  melodramatic  traditions  obtained  in  the 
theatre. 

“Drawing  himself  to  his  loftiest  proportions,”  he 
would  advance  toward  the  audience  with  solemn  and 
ponderous  gravity.  When  he  reached  the  carefully  select¬ 
ed  position  from  which  he  proposed  to  speak,  he  would 
stand,  thrust  his  right  hand  into  the  breast  of  his  but¬ 
toned  coat,  pause  for  an  unusually  long  time,  stare  im¬ 
pressively  at  the  audience,  and  then  begin  in  a  heavy 
orotund  voice  and  a  bombastic  style.  It  is  true,  he  was  a 

101 


102 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


man  of  real  ability  and  he  impressed  his  audience,  but,  in 
spite  of  his  style  rather  than  by  means  of  it. 

The  other  was  one  of  the  greatest  pulpit  orators  of  his 
generation.  He  was  a  man  of  rare  spirituality  and  win¬ 
ning  personality.  When  he  appeared  for  a  lecture,  he 
walked  easily  and  naturally  upon  the  plaform,  and,  as  it 
were,  took  the  audience  by  the  hand.  His  position  on  the 
platform  caused  him  no  concern.  He  spoke  from  any¬ 
where.  He  did  not  seek  the  spotlight.  He  began  in  a 
simple,  deliberate,  straightforward  way.  He  conversed 
with  his  audience,  intimately  but  not  familiarly,  and  upon 
the  plane  of  the  average  hearer.  It  was,  as  if  he  said, 
“Come,  let  us  reason  together.”  His  simple  manliness, 
self-poise,  directness,  culture,  sincere  personality,  and 
honesty  of  purpose  captivated  any  audience.  He  always 
commanded  such  respect,  that,  when  he  finished,  his 
hearers  felt,  with  one  accord,  as  a  distinguished  orator 
generously  said  of  a  great  contemporary,  “True  nature 
seemed  to  be  speaking  all  over  him.” 

The  first  speaker’s  solicitude  was,  “How  do  I  look?” 
“How  do  I  act?”  The  second  speaker’s  concern  appeared 
to  be,  “Have  I  something  to  say?”  “Have  I  confidence 
in  it?”  “Can  I  persuade  my  hearers  to  accept  it?” 

I  need  scarcely  ask  my  reader  which  represents  true 
dignity  on  the  platform  or  elsewhere,  the  formalism,  the 
ponderous  bearing,  the  stilted  manner  of  the  first  type, 
or  the  earnestness,  the  straightforwardness,  and  the  self- 
control  of  the  second. 

May  I  ask,  have  you  ever  seen  a  speaker  approach  an 
audience  in  that  humble  and  self-depreciative  manner,  as 
if  he  were  apologizing  for  daring  to  open  his  mouth  in 
public;  or,  incited  either  by  an  excess  of  nervous  excita¬ 
bility  or  animal  spirits,  wildly  gesticulate;  or  overcome 
by  an  overplus  of  emotionalism,  loudly  rant?  Did  any  of 
these  command  your  respect  ?  The  answer  is  obvious. 


DIGNITY 


103 


*  Dignity  in  public  speaking,  like  dignity  under  all  other 
circumstances,  is  made  up  of  a  number  of  elements.  No 
doubt  you  have  heard  someone  speak  of  one  of  these 
elements,  simplicity  for  example,  as  if  he  regarded  it  as 
an  equivalent  of  dignity.  True  simplicity  is  a  compo¬ 
nent  part  of  dignity,  but,  by  itself  it  may  just  be  nciivete. 
Then,  what  are  the  essentials  of  dignity  in  public  speak¬ 
ing?  Some,  at  least,  of  them  are  sincerity  in  purpose, 
clearness  and  honesty  in  thinking  or  the  logical  treatment 
of  verified  matter,  transparency  in  statement,  and  sim¬ 
plicity  and  directness  in  delivery.  The  seriousness  of 
dignity  may  be  varied  and  lightened  by  wit,  humor,  or 
genial  satire.  It  is  marred  by  raillery,  sarcasm,  triviality, 
or  affected  smartness.  In  conclusion,  the  dignified  public 
speaker  is  impressive  but  not  ponderous,  intimate  but  not 
familiar. 

ASSIGNMENTS 

Study,  memorize,  and  interpret  in  delivery,  orations  by 

(a)  Lord  Chatham. 

(b)  Edmund  Burke. 

(c)  John  Bright. 

(d)  Daniel  Webster. 

(e)  Henry  Clay. 

(f)  Daniel  O’Connell. 

(g)  Wendell  Phillips. 

(h)  Henry  Ward  Beecher. 

(i)  Abraham  Lincoln. 

(j)  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier. 

(k)  A.  J.  Balfour. 

(l)  David  Lloyd  George. 

(m)  Theodore  Roosevelt. 

(n)  Woodrow  Wilson. 

Other  equally  good  lists,  and  without  number,  may  be 
made  from  the  English  and  American  orators.  Any  study 
of  the  subject  would  be  limited,  indeed,  that  did  not  in¬ 
clude  the  oratory  of  continental  Europe,  and  of  Ancient 
Greece  and  Rome.  Any  comprehensive  anthology  of  ora¬ 
tory  will  include  the  ancient  and  modern  masterpieces. 


XVIII 


SPEAKING  WITH  AUTHORITY 

TO  speak  with  authority  is  to  speak  with  confidence. 

To  speak  with  confidence  is  to  speak  without  fear. 
To  speak  without  fear  is  to  speak  with  knowledge.  To 
speak  with  knowledge  is  to  speak  after  preparation. 

Then,  the  basis  of  speaking  with  authority  is  prepara¬ 
tion.  The  price  that  he,  who  would  excel  as  a  public 
speaker  must  pay,  is  application.  Why  is  it  that  the 
possession  of  a  ready  and  easy  flow  of  words  has  wrecked 
so  many  promising  oratorical  careers?  Simply  because 
the  possessors  of  such  fluency  substituted  this  aptness 
in  words  for  careful  preparation  in  thinking.  I  have 
come  to  regard  the  possession  of  fluency  in  language  by 
a  young  man,  as  a  positive  hindrance  to  future  distinction 
in  public  speaking,  and  for  the  reasons  I  have  given. 
When  will  men  realize  that  eloquence  does  not  consist  in 
words,  but  in  ideas?  You  have  heard  some  eminent 
public  speaker  convince,  persuade,  and  move  to  action; 
and  you  have  exclaimed,  “This  is  a  gift,”  “The  orator 
is  born  not  made.”  I  think  one  would  be  safe  in  assert¬ 
ing,  that  no  man  ever  attained  distinction  in  public  speak¬ 
ing  without  constant  and  unremitting  effort.  I  know 
that  one  of  the  most  distinguished  pulpit  orators  of  a 
great  metropolitan  city  spends  night  after  night,  each 
week,  in  the  careful  development  and  perfecting  the 
thought  and  wording  of  the  following  Sunday’s  sermons. 
I  know  also  that  a  certain  statesman  of  international 


104 


SPEAKING  WITH  AUTHORITY 


105 


reputation  gives  the  same  thorough  preparation  to  his 
public  utterances.  We  do  wish  that  the  extemporaneous 
or  impromptu  speaker,  who  begins  anywhere  and  ends 
nowhere,  would  either  get  to  work  or  quit,  for,  as  some¬ 
one  has  said,  “We  are  tired  of  the  babbler,  the  spouter, 
and  the  chinwagger.” 

Through  preparation  the  public  speaker  develops  a 
knowledge  of  his  theme.  He  acquires  the  facts  about  it. 
He  secures  information  concerning  it.  He  learns  to 
know  his  subject.  “You  must  know  what  you  want  to 
say,  to  be  able  to  say  it.” 

Knowledge  expels  fear.  If  the  public  speaker  does 
not  have  his  facts  and  information  well  in  hand,  he  is 
apt  to  stumble,  to  flounder,  to  “flap  and  splash”  about. 
He  struggles  with  his  thought.  He  fears  he  will  have 
nothing  to  say.  An  evil  genius  prompts  him  to  stay  on 
his  feet.  Failure  stares  him  in  the  face.  Panic  seizes 
him.  His  mind  becomes  a  blank.  He  sits  down,  a  sorry 
spectacle,  a  pitiful  example  of  one  overcome  by  that  fear 
which  arises  from  the  neglect  of  the  preparation  of  the 
ideas,  from  lack  of  knowledge. 

Now  that  fear  is  eliminated  through  knowledge,  con¬ 
fidence  reigns.  The  speaker  no  longer  fears  that  he  will 
have  nothing  to  say,  for  he  knows  that  he  has  something 
to  say.  Control  replaces  agitation ;  deliberation,  nervous 
confusion;  definite  expression,  fumbling  for  words. 

The  result  is,  that  the  speaker  can  now  speak  with 
certainty  and  confidence.  His  investigation  into  the 
subject  has  rendered  him  competent.  He  can  speak  with 
authority. 

Someone  may  say,  “I  have  given  all  possible  prepara¬ 
tion  to  a  subject,  but  on  account  of  limitations  in  ability 
or  education,  I  still  have  feared  to  speak,  because  I  knew 
that  some  members  of  the  audience  were  much  better 
qualified  than  I.”  Do  not  let  such  fear  prevent  you  from 


106 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


speaking.  No  individual  is  the  repository  of  all  the 
knowledge  on  any  subject.  Each  of  us  may  have  some¬ 
thing  to  contribute.  When  you  have  investigated  the 
subject  thoroughly  and  organized  the  material  clearly, 
you  are  justified  in  assuming  that  you  can  speak  with 
some  degree  of  authority. 

ASSIGNMENTS 

I.  Choose  a  subject  within  your  experience — I  use  the  word 
“Experience”  in  its  widest  significance.  State  it  in  the 
form  of  a  proposition,  e.g.,  “Resolved  that  athletic  sports 
should  be  encouraged.”  Assume  the  side  of  the  question 
that  agrees  with  your  sentiments.  Ponder  and  read  on  the 
question  until  you  are  satisfied  that  you  have  mastered  it. 
Organize  the  material  or  “brief”  it.  Speak  with  assurance 
born  of  knowledge. 

II.  Treat  a  number  of  questions  as  outlined  in  I. 


XIX 


DICTION 

THE  language  of  public  speaking  should  befit  the 
speaker,  be  intelligible  to  the  hearer,  and  be  ap¬ 
propriate  for  the  subject.  These  are  qualifications  that 
adequate  diction  must  possess. 

You  may  have  attended  some  school  function,  when  a 
pupil  delivered  an  address  prepared  by  the  teacher.  The 
words  were  beyond  the  experience  of  the  pupil.  In  his 
mouth,  they  were  unbefitting  and  absurd.  A  perform¬ 
ance  of  this  nature,  always  makes  makes  me  think  of  a 
child  masquerading  in  his  father’s  hat. 

Or  you  may  have  listened  to  a  speaker  of  limited  ex¬ 
perience  and  meagre  education,  endeavoring  to  clothe  his 
naive  thinking  by  the  conscious  employment  of  words, 
in  the  use  of  which  he  was  capable  of  exercising  but  little 
discrimination.  You  must  have  been  struck  with  the  in¬ 
eptitude  and  unsuitability  of  the  diction. 

Or  you  may  have  heard  a  speaker  who  attached  more 
importance  to  words  than  to  thoughts;  who  seemed  to 
cherish  the  error  that  eloquence  lies  in  words  and  not  in 
ideas,  and  who  expressed  the  most  commonplace  thinking 
in  ostentatious  language.  You  will  recall,  that  he  was 
as  conscious  of  his  high-sounding  phrases  as  an  over¬ 
appareled  and  dandified  individual  is  of  his  clothes. 

Then,  there  is  the  speaker,  who  possesses  a  copious 
vocabulary  and  exercises  discernment  of  distinctions  in 
the  selection  of  words,  but  is  so  obsessed  with  a  certain 

107 


108 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


finicality  in  this  choice,  that  his  diction  conveys  the  im¬ 
pression  of  fastidiousness. 

A  speaker,  of  the  type  just  referred  to,  may  also  be 
tempted  to  a  conscious  cleverness  or  smartness  in  the 
use  of  words.  Such  diction  conveys  the  impression  of 
unnaturalness,  stiltedness,  and  artificiality.  In  the  hands 
of  a  skilled  craftsman  in  the  use  of  language,  it  may 
possess  aptness  and  a  certain  superficial  attractiveness, 
but  it  is  wanting  in  vigor  and  sincerity.  Such  language, 
no  matter  how  dexterously  manipulated,  reminds  one  of 
artificial  flowers.  Manufactured  roses  may  bear  a  strik¬ 
ing  resemblance  to  real  roses,  but  the  life,  the  spirit,  the 
fragrance  are  lacking. 

Diction,  then,  should  not  be  formal,  but  living  and 
organic.  It  should  not  be  imposed  upon  ideas,  but  rather 
generated  by  intense  concentration  and  clear  thinking  at 
the  time  of  speaking.  The  vocabulary  employed  by  the 
speaker  under  these  conditions,  will  be  made  up  of  thor¬ 
oughly  digested  and  assimilated  words.  These  are  the 
only  words  he  has  a  right  to  use.  Such  language,  like 
that  of  conversation,  will  be  simple,  vital,  concrete,  and 
suggestive,  as  befits  the  speaker. 

The  language  of  the  public  speaker  should  be  intelligible 
to  the  hearer.  To  interest  an  audience,  the  speaker  must 
refer  to  the  experience  of  his  hearers,  to  “what  they  retain, 
from  what  they  have  seen,  heard,  read,  done,  and  felt.’’ 
The  diction  used  by  the  speaker,  to  interest  his  hearers, 
must  approximate  the  language  used  by  them  in  the  ex¬ 
pression  of  these  experiences.  I  do  not  mean  by  this, 
that  he  should  obviously  pander  to,  or  seek  to  ingratiate 
himself  with  a  particular  audience  by  using  the  vernacular 
of  the  class  or  locality  to  which  its  members  belong. 
I  do  not  agree  with  what  was  evidently  Will  Carleton’s 
persuasion  in  this  matter,  when  he  wrote: 


DICTION 


109 


“He  with  no  oratorical  display 
Spoke  to  farmers  in  their  own  rough  way.” 

Someone  spoke  truly  when  he  said,  “All  classes  of  people 
like  simple,  sincere,  and  good  language.”  I  do  mean  to 
say,  however,  that  the  speaker  must  not,  “shoot  over  the 
heads”  of  his  hearers,  by  using  words  they  do  not  under¬ 
stand. 

As  implied  in  the  opening  paragraph  of  this  chapter,  a 
thorough  understanding  of  the  subject  must  tend  to  such 
a  modification  of  the  language,  as  to  render  it  suitable  to 
the  theme.  It  must  be  evident  that  it  is  necessary  for 
anyone,  who  may  essay  to  speak  in  public,  to  improve 
his  diction  and  increase  his  vocabulary.  The  advice 
usually  offered  to  such  a  one — and  I  do  not  see  how  it 
can  be  improved  upon — is,  “Study  the  masterpieces  of 
literature,  especially  the  Bible;  memorize  passages  from 
the  great  orations;  read  present-day  literature;  cultivate 
the  acquaintance  of  cultured  persons ;  and  possess  and  use 
a  standard  unabridged  dictionary.” 


XX 


VIGOROUS  EXPRESSION 

UPON  looking  over  some  old  correspondence  the 
other  day,  I  came  across  a  letter  from  the  late 
Dr.  Scovel,  sometime  President  of  the  University  of 
Wooster,  in  which  he  defined  oratory  as  “clear  thinking, 
vigorously  expressed.”  He  might  have  added,  as  with¬ 
out  doubt  he  inferred,  that  vigorous  expression  depends 
upon  clear  thinking. 

The  process  of  clear  thinking  in  public  speaking  func¬ 
tions  in  a  definite  concentration  of  the  mental  energies 
upon  each  of  a  succession  of  distinctly  individualized 
ideas,  systematically  ordered  to  a  logical  conclusion.  The 
degree  of  the  vigor  of  the  resulting  impression  is  in  direct 
ratio  to  the  degree  of  the  strength  of  each  concentration. 
All  this  constitutes  the  basis  of  vigorous  expression. 

Then,  on  the  mental  side  there  are  three  factors  that 
contribute  to  vigor  in  delivery,  namely,  a  precise  purpose, 
concentration  upon  definite  ideas,  and  an  appreciation 
of  the  relationship  of  these  ideas  to  each  other  and  to 
the  particular  object  of  the  speech.  Let  me  make  a 
comparison.  You  have  set  out  for  a  certain  place.  You 
knew  the  exact  location  of  your  destination.  You  were 
familiar  with  prominent  objects  in  the  landscape,  which 
served  to  direct  you  to  the  end  of  your  journey.  You 
moved  along,  surely,  boldly,  firmly.  In  other  words  you 
pursued  your  way  vigorously. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  the  speaker’s  thinking  is  vague, 

110 


VIGOROUS  EXPRESSION 


111 


his  expression  will  be  hesitating,  uncertain,  and  weak. 
A  number  of  years  ago,  I  spent  my  holidays  with  a 
camping  party  in  a  section  of  the  country  where  there 
were  very  few  settlers,  and  where  the  roads  were  little 
more  than  trails  through  the  woods.  I  had  taken  some 
examination  papers  along  with  me  and  I  spent  part  of 
my  time  marking  them.  The  report  had  to  be  forwarded 
to  the  school  inspector  before  a  certain  date  in  my  holiday, 
so  I  had  to  seek  the  nearest  post-office,  in  order  to  mail  it. 
My  knowledge  of  the  location  of  the  post-office  was  very 
vague,  and  of  the  road  leading  to  it,  vaguer  still.  To 
make  matters  worse,  I  set  out  late  in  the  evening.  As 
you  can  imagine,  I  proceeded  hesitatingly  and  doubtfully. 
I  did  not,  because  I  could  not,  strike  out  spiritedly  and 
vigorously. 

The  most  important  factor  in  the  actual  process  of 
vigorous  expression  is  concentration.  Shall  we  consider 
this  matter  negatively?  You  may  have  heard  someone 
speak  in  public  in  a  listless,  indifferent  manner.  He 
seemingly  lacked  interest  in  his  theme.  His  attention 
was  unfocused,  relaxed,  and  drifting.  In  short,  he  did 
not  concentrate  upon  his  ideas  definitely  and  intensely. 
As  a  result  his  delivery  lacked  vitality  and  strength. 

Or  you  may  have  listened,  or  tried  to  listen  to  another 
type  of  speaker,  whose  attention  fluttered  about  irregularly 
and  incoherently  among  his  ideas.  He  lacked  that  pris¬ 
matic  and  sustained  concentration  possessed  by  the  most 
effective  public  speakers.  You  will  recall,  that,  as  a 
result,  he  was  nervously  excited  and  agitated  in  manner. 
His  delivery  lacked  purpose  and  force. 

Shall  we  consider  the  matter  positively?  Concentra¬ 
tion  upon  each  idea  draws  all  the  mental  energies  together 
to  a  given  point,  and  fixes  the  entire  attention  upon  a 
single  thought  at  a  time.  This  focusing  of  attention 


112 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


results  in  intensity  in  action,  or  to  apply  to  public  speak¬ 
ing,  vigor  in  delivery. 

While  energy  in  expression  is,  in  its  origin,  mental,  it 
is  revealed  through  our  physical  being.  The  bodily  vigor 
in  delivery,  however,  is  subordinate  to,  governed  by,  and 
an  expression  of  the  mental  concentration.  Delivery  in 
public  speaking  so  centred,  so  generated,  and  so  con¬ 
trolled  is  vital,  animated  and  vivid.  Possessing  poise, 
and  reserve,  it  suggests  power  and  vigor. 

If  one  would  speak  vigorously,  he  must  appear  before 
an  audience  with  a  definite  purpose,  careful  preparation, 
and  with  the  ability  to  think  clearly  and  concentrate  in¬ 
tensely. 


ASSIGNMENTS 

I.  Choose  a  subject,  gather  material  bearing  upon  it.  Submit 
the  material  to  an  exacting  logical  organization,  so  that 
the  specific  purpose  of  the  speech  and  the  relation  of  each 
thought  to  that  purpose  will  be  clearly  fixed  in  your  mind. 
Deliver  the  speech  to  a  large  number  of  hearers  focusing 
their  attention  definitely  and  intensely  upon  each  idea,  and 
according  to  its  relative  importance. 

II.  Repeat  the  process  of  I  with  a  number  of  subjects. 


XXI 


WHEN  TO  END  A  SPEECH 

WHAT  is  more  tedious  than  prolixity?  You  will 
remember  the  insufferable  weariness  you  experi¬ 
enced  when  you  were  afflicted  with  a  story  teller  who 
insisted  upon  reciting  every  detail  with  meticulous  care; 
or  how  your  attention  flagged  during  the  reading  of  an 
unduly  long  book,  until  it  rebelled  at  the  prospect  of 
being  dragged  through  the  remaining  chapters,  and  you 
compromised  by  skipping  to  the  end  to  find  out  the 
denouement;  or  the  intolerable  boredom  you  endured  at 
the  hands  of  some  hyper-conscientious  public  speaker, 
who  did  not  realize  that  it  is  unnecessary  “to  tell  every¬ 
thing  you  know  about  a  subject” ;  or  one  “whose  minute 
puerility,  in  his  sterile  abundance,  detailed  till  nothing  was 
remembered  and  described  till  nothing  was  perceptible.’ * 
Many  an  otherwise  effective  speech  is  botched  by  this 
desire  to  “hang  on.”  I  have  never  known  a  speech  to 
have  been  impaired  by  brevity.  I  have  listened  to  so 
many  that  were  marred  by  prolixity.  How  often  you 
have  heard  this  of  a  speaker,  “His  speeches  are  good,  but 
too  long.”  The  public  speaker  should  never  strain  the 
patience  of  his  hearers  until  they  are  tempted  to  stamp 
him  down  or  to  entertain  an  unholy  wish  that  something 
would  happen  to  eliminate  him. 

A  real  friend  and  wise  counsellor  of  mine,  with  whom 
I  frequently  confer  in  the  preparation  of  public  talks  or 
in  the  arrangement  of  programmes,  always  begins  our 

113 


114 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


conference  with  a  reiteration  of  this  warning,  “Remem¬ 
ber,  it  is  always  better  to  leave  your  hearers  wanting  more 
than  to  surfeit  them.”  This  admonition  prevents  many 
a  sin  of  commission. 

There  are  three  causes  chiefly  responsible  for  undue 
length  in  speechmaking.  In  the  first  place,  there  is  the 
inclination  to  include  too  great  a  multiplicity  of  details. 
You  cannot  say  all  there  is  to  say  on  a  subject  in  the  time 
usually  allotted  for  a  speech,  and  which  it  is  not  good 
policy  to  extend.  What,  then,  should  be  included  and 
what  excluded?  From  the  mass  of  material  available, 
the  speaker  should,  in  his  preparation,  select  those  argu¬ 
ments  essential  to  the  adequate  treatment  of  the  subject 
and  reject  everything  not  imperatively  necessary  to  the 
support  of  these  arguments,  or,  in  other  words,  reject 
everything  that  is  not  definitely  relevant. 

In  the  second  place,  there  is  a  tendency  to  excessive 
wordiness  arising  from  anxiety  lest  the  individual 
thoughts  will  not  be  intelligible,  or,  in  other  words,  to  be 
too  explicit.  Such  a  speaker  must  learn  to  have  greater 
confidence  in  and  rely  more  upon  the  intelligence  of  his 
audience. 

Then  many  speakers  become  wearisome  on  account  of 
the  unnecessary  repetition  of  ideas.  Of  course,  repetition 
of  an  idea  may  be  employed  as  a  device  to  secure  greater 
emphasis.  On  the  other  hand,  if  it  is  not  so  employed,  it 
weakens  the  emphasis  and  compromises  the  effect  of  the 
speech  by  unnecessarily  prolonging  it. 

The  public  speaker  is  well  advised  who  assumes  that  a 
speech  unduly  prolonged,  whether  on  account  of  the 
faults  to  which  I  have  called  attention  or  the  nature  of 
the  subject,  or  any  other  cause,  becomes  uninteresting 
and  tiresome  to  the  audience.  Through  the  lack  of  ob¬ 
servance  of  the  caution  implied  in  this  chapter  many  an 
otherwise  admirable  effort  has  failed  in  effectiveness. 


WHEN  TO  END  A  SPEECH 


115 


Then,  when  shall  a  speaker  end  a  speech?  I  can  best 
answer  that  question  in  the  words  of  Edward  Everett 
Hale,  “Have  something  to  say  and  say  it.”  Someone  has 
added,  “And  then  sit  down.” 

ASSIGNMENTS 

I.  Brief  a  ten-minute  speech  on  “The  influence  of  the  modern 
newspaper.”  Deliver  the  speech  including  all  the  points 
outlined  in  the  brief,  and  not  exceeding  the  time  limit  of 
ten  minutes. 

II.  Repeat  the  process  in  I  in  a  fifteen-minute  speech  on  “The 
Value  of  Polar  Expeditions.” 

III.  Repeat  the  process  in  I  in  a  twenty-minute  speech  on  “The 
advantages  accruing  to  the  participants  in  athletics.” 

IV.  Repeat  the  process  in  I  in  a  thirty-minute  speech  on  “The 
Evolution  of  the  British  Empire.” 


XXII 


HOW  TO  ATTAIN  THE  PURPOSE  OF  A  SPEECH 

THE  translation  of  the  theme  of  this  chapter  into 
popular  parlance  would  read,  “How  to  get  the  idea 
over.”  He  who  prides  himself  on  the  academic  or  con¬ 
ventional  nature  of  the  expression  of  his  ideas  will  not 
be  inclined  to  regard,  “How  to  get  the  idea  over,”  with 
favor.  Nevertheless,  the  phrase  arrests  the  attention. 
It  is  vivid  and  suggestive,  and  I  shall  use  it  frequently  in 
this  chapter. 

“Getting  the  idea  over”  implies  effecting  the  purpose 
of  a  speech  or  securing  action  along  the  lines  advocated 
by  so  presenting  the  matter  or  argument  that  the  hearers 
are  convinced  of  the  validity  of  the  facts,  reasoning,  and 
conclusion. 

To  “get  the  idea  over,”  then,  the  speaker  must  impress 
the  main  idea  or  conclusion  upon  his  listeners,  since  their 
acceptance  of  it  is  vitally  necessary  if  he  is  to  persuade 
them  to  the  course  of  action  he  wishes  them  to  pursue. 
But  a  simple  statement  of  the  main  idea  will  be  very 
unlikely  to  ensure  its  acceptance.  It  must  be  supported 
by  proof  in  the  shape  of  facts,  authorities,  etc.  If  he 
can  succeed  in  leading  or  dominating  his  hearers  into 
acknowledging  the  correctness  of  his  evidence,  the  accu¬ 
racy  of  his  reasoning,  and  the  soundness  of  his  judg¬ 
ments,  he  will  have  convinced  them. 

The  nature  of  the  presentation  of  the  matter  of  a 
speech,  or  the  delivery,  is  of  very  great  importance  in 
the  process  of  convincing  an  audience.  The  speaker  must 

116 


ATTAINING  THE  PURPOSE  OF  A  SPEECH  117 


“come  to  grips”  with  his  hearers.  He  must  seize  and 
direct  their  attention  to  his  thoughts.  He  must  control 
their  mental  energies  to,  and  concentrate  them  upon,  each 
idea,  and  compel  them  straight  to  his  inference.  Thus  he 
insures  the  acceptance  of  the  conclusion. 

If  the  speaker  succeeds  in  convincing  his  hearers,  and 
if  he  is  sincere  in  his  object — that  is,  if  he  adds  the 
energy  of  conviction  to  his  reasoning — he  will  achieve 
his  purpose  in  addressing  them.  He  will  impel  them  to 
act  as  he  would  have  them  act. 

When  the  speaker  has  attained  his  aim,  when  he  has 
persuaded,  or  aroused,  or  impelled  his  hearers  to  that 
action  he  earnestly  wishes  them  to  take,  he  has  succeeded 
in  “getting  the  idea  over.” 

Let  me  illustrate :  not  long  ago  a  fiscal  agent  gave  me 
a  description  of  his  method  in  salesmanship.  “To  make 
my  method  in  salesmanship  more  vivid,”  he  said,  “I  will 
regard  you  as  a  prospective  buyer.  I  would  approach 
you  with  the  settled  determination  to  sell  you  some  shares. 
To  accomplish  this,  I  would  first  set  about  qualifying  or 
preparing  you  to  invest.  This  process  of  qualification  or 
preparation  consists  of  an  endeavor  to  convince  the  pros¬ 
pective  buyer  of  the  soundness  of  the  proposition.  If  I 
should  succeed  in  this  you  would  be  ready  for  the  next 
step,  namely,  to  be  persuaded  to  buy. 

“In  the  first  stage  of  the  process  of  the  qualification 
of  a  probable  client,  the  purpose  is  to  get  consent  that 
the  agent  may  proceed  with  a  discussion  of  the  proposi¬ 
tion.  To  secure  this  permission,  I  would  make  a  con¬ 
scious  effort  to  focus  your  attention  upon  certain  ideas 
designed  to  interest  you,  and  thus  dispose  you  to  listen 
sympathetically  to  the  description  of  what  I  desired  to 
sell  you  and  eventually  to  accept  my  proposal. 

“I  would  begin  operations  deliberately,  aggressively, 
and  directly.  I  would  concentrate  your  attention,  for 


118 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


instance,  on  the  following :  ‘If  you  have  a  few  hundred 
dollars  for  which  you  have  no  immediate  use;  if  I  can 
show  you  how  you  can  invest  this  money  to  unusual 
advantage;  if  I  can  assure  you  that  after  the  most  careful 
scrutiny  on  your  own  part,  and  the  most  thorough  inves¬ 
tigation  by  any  competent  expert,  that  the  enterprise  is 
sound,  will  you  consider  my  proposition?’  In  all  proba¬ 
bility  you  would  say,  ‘Go  ahead,’  and  I  would  have 
accomplished  my  preliminary  purpose.”  Thus  the  agent 
gets  his  introductory  idea  “over.” 

If  a  speaker  can  stand  on  a  platform  and  do  with  a 
number  of  persons  what  this  man  was  successful  in  doing 
in  individual  cases,  he  will  succeed  in  “getting  the  idea 
over,”  in  attaining  the  purpose  of  his  speech. 

ASSIGNMENTS 

I.  Impress  your  hearers  with : 

(a)  Desirability  of  membership  in  a  benevolent  society. 

(b)  The  advantages  of  endowment  insurance  over  straight 
life  insurance. 

(c)  The  necessity  for  Old  Age  Pensions. 

(d)  The  necessity  for  teaching  agriculture  in  the  public 
schools. 

(e)  The  necessity  for  a  business  course  in  the  High 
Schools. 

(f)  The  advantage  of  membership  in  a  debating  society. 

(g)  The  necessity  for  church  affiliation. 


XXIII 


VIVIDNESS 

SPEAKING  on  the  desirability  of  showing  sympathy 
one  might  say,  “It  is  highly  desirable  that  one  should 
endeavor  to  alleviate  suffering,  relieve  distress,  comfort 
the  sorrowing,  and  hearten  the  discouraged.”  Or  one 
might  treat  it  after  this  fashion — in  prose,  of  course, 
since  one  is  not  a  poet,  and  without  colloquialisms : 

“When  you  see  a  man  in  woe, 

Walk  right  up  and  say  ‘Hullo!’ 

Say  ‘Hullo!’  and  ‘How  d’ye  do?’ 

‘How’s  the  world  a-usin’  you?’ 

Slap  the  fellow  on  his  back, 

Bring  your  han’  down  with  a  whack. 

Waltz  right  up,  an’  don’t  go  slow; 

Grin  an’  shake  an’  say  ‘BIullo!’  ” 

The  former  example  is  a  general,  heavy,  and  uninter¬ 
esting  discussion  of  the  subject.  It  is  colorless.  In  the 
latter,  Mr.  S.  W.  Foss  presents  a  realistic  and  colorful 
picture  of  the  exercise  of  sympathy.  It  is  vivid. 

General  statements  rarely  attract  attention  because  they 
are  abstract,  vague,  and  cold.  Ideas  conveyed  by  illus¬ 
tration  or  reference  to  experience  always  excite  interest 
because  they  are  concrete,  graphic,  and  clear.  Henry 
Ward  Beecher  said,  “An  illustration  is  a  window  in  an 
argument  and  lets  in  light.” 

Thoughts  are  vividly  expressed  when  treated  con¬ 
cretely — for  example,  by  illustration.  The  speaker  must 

119 


120 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


derive  his  illustrations  from  his  own  experience.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  would  be  idle  for  him  to  use  illustrations 
without  the  experience  of  his  hearers.  Therefore,  while 
the  speaker,  to  be  vivid,  must  illustrate  from  his  own 
experience,  he  must  adjust  his  illustrations  to  what  he 
conceives  to  be  the  experience  of  his  audience.  The 
appeal  of  the  poetry  of  Ebenezer  Elliott,  the  Corn  Law 
Rhymer,  to  the  English  laboring  poor,  through  the  me¬ 
dium  of  their  experience,  affords  a  good  example.  Here 
is  a  stanza  from  “Caged  Rats’" : 

“Ye  coop  us  up,  and  tax  our  bread, 

And  wonder  why  we  pine; 

But  ye  are  fat,  and  round,  and  red, 

And  filled  with  tax-bought  wine. 

Thus  twelve  rats  starve  while  three  rats  thrive 
(Like  you  on  mine  and  me), 

When  fifteen  rats  are  caged  alive, 

With  food  for  nine  and  three.” 

May  I  again  remind  my  readers  that  experience  in¬ 
cludes  “all  that  one  retains  from  what  one  has  seen, 
heard,  read,  done,  and  felt.” 

The  whole  matter  may  be  summed  up  as  an  appeal  to 
the  imagination  by  couching  ideas  in  images,  examples, 
comparisons,  anecdotes,  etc.,  within  the  experience  of 
both  the  speaker  and  the  hearers.  May  I  digress  for  a 
moment,  at  this  point,  to  say  that  there  is  a  popular 
conception  that  the  imagination  is  freakish,  capricious, 
whimsical,  and  abnormal?  This  is  not  correct.  Such  a 
conception  confuses  imagination  with  fancy.  On  the 
contrary,  the  imagination  is  normal,  serious,  and  truthful. 
It  is  based  upon  actual  impressions  derived  from  reality. 

It  is  this  power  of  imagination  or  ability  to  “other” 
himself  into  the  life  of  the  plain  and  simple  and  create 
out  of  common  experiences  that  enables  Lloyd  George 
to  make  such  a  remarkable  popular  appeal.  The  follow- 


VIVIDNESS 


121 


ing  peroration  from  one  of  his  speeches  will  give  a  taste 
of  his  quality:  “You  have  hundreds  of  thousands  of  men 
— working  unceasingly  for  wages  that  barely  bring  them 
enough  bread  to  keep  themselves  and  their  families  above 
privation.  Generation  after  generation  they  see  their 
children  wither  before  their  eyes  for  lack  of  air,  light,  and 
space,  which  is  denied  them  by  men  who  have  square 
miles  of  it  for  their  own  use.  Take  our  cities,  the  great 
cities  of  a  great  empire.  Right  in  the  heart  of  them 
everywhere  you  have  ugly  quagmires  of  human  misery, 
seething,  rotting,  at  last  fermenting.  We  pass  them  by 
every  day  on  our  way  to  our  comfortable  houses.  We 
forget  that  divine  justice  never  passed  by  a  great  wrong. 
You  can  hear,  carried  by  the  breezes  of  the  north,  the 
south,  the  east,  and  the  west,  ominous  rumbling.  The 
chariots  of  retribution  are  drawing  nigh.  How  long  will 
all  these  injustices  last  for  myriads  of  men,  women,  and 
children  created  to  the  image  of  God — how  long?  I 
believe  it  is  coming  to  an  end. 

“I  remember  a  story  told  in  my  youth  of  a  very  re¬ 
markable  but  rather  quaint  old  Welsh  preacher.  He  was 
conducting  a  funeral  service  for  a  poor  old  fellow  who 
had  a  very  bad  time  through  life  without  any  fault  of 
his  own.  They  could  hardly  find  a  space  in  the  church¬ 
yard  for  his  tomb.  At  last  they  got  enough  to  make  a 
brickless  grave  amidst  towering  monuments  that  rose 
upon  it,  and  the  old  minister,  standing  above  it,  said : 
‘Well,  Davie  Vach,  you  have  had  a  narrow  time  right 
through  life  and  you  have  a  narrow  place  in  death. 
But  never  mind,  old  friend;  I  can  see  a  day  dawning 
when  you  will  rise  out  of  your  narrow  bed  and  call  out 
to  all  those  big  people,  “Elbow  room  for  the  poor.”  ’  I 
can  see  the  day  of  the  resurrection,  the  dawn  of  the  resur¬ 
rection  of  the  oppressed  in  all  lands  already  gilding  the 
hilltops.” 


122 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


It  may  be  well  at  this  point  to  urge  that  clear  thinking 
is  essential  to  apt,  manifest,  and  intelligible  images  and 
illustrations.  Vagueness  cannot  beget  distinctness. 

The  imaginative  treatment  of  thinking  in  public  speak¬ 
ing  vitalizes  the  ideas,  informs  the  language,  animates  the 
voice,  and  gives  form  and  suggestiveness  to  gesture  or 
bodily  expression.  In  other  words,  it  makes  for  vividness. 

ASSIGNMENTS 

I.  In  a  speech  on  each  of  the  following  subjects,  illustrate 
each  point  by  an  example  taken  from  the  same  field: 

(a)  An  Altruistic  Life. 

(b)  The  Evils  of  Gambling 

(c)  The  Power  of  Oratory. 

(d)  The  Advantages  of  Travel. 

(e)  The  Patriot. 

II.  In  a  speech  on  each  of  the  following  subjects,  illustrate 
each  point  by  an  appropriate  comparison  drawn  from  some 
other  field: 

(a)  Honesty  in  Politics. 

(b)  Government  Ownership  and  Operation  of  Railroads. 

(c)  National  Morality. 

(d)  Agricultural  Courses  for  Farmers. 

(e)  Necessity  for  Business  Methods  in  Charitable  Work. 

III.  Apply  I  and  II  to  audiences  representing  specific  groups, 
selecting  the  examples  and  comparisons  upon  the  basis  of 
a  reference  to  their  particular  experience. 


XXIV 


PERSONALITY 

SO  much  has  been  written,  wisely  and  unwisely,  about 
personality  that  I  hesitate  to  discuss  it.  Also  a  theme 
that  includes  the  “three  attributes  of  consciousness,  char¬ 
acter,  and  will”  is  too  comprehensive  for  treatment  in  a 
short  chapter.  However,  since  it  is  such  an  important 
factor  in  public  speaking  I  am  forced  to  give  some  atten¬ 
tion  to  it  in  this  book.  This  consideration  must  neces¬ 
sarily  be  brief  and  cursory. 

A  great  contemporary  of  Edmund  Burke  said  of  him, 
that  if  a  person  were  to  withdraw  into  a  doorway  to 
escape  a  rainstorm,  and  if,  under  these  circumstances,  he 
casually  met  and  engaged  in  conversation  with  Edmund 
Burke,  even  though  he  were  not  aware  of  his  identity,  he 
would  regard  him  as  an  extraordinary  man.  I  have  not 
the  quotation  by  me  and  my  statement  of  it  may  not  be 
exact,  but  I  think  what  I  have  written  conveys  the  import 
of  it.  What  was  it  that  distinguished  Burke  as  a  man  of 
such  superior  quality?  Personality. 

Personality  is  based  upon  the  unique  life  possessed  by 
each  individual.  Why,  may  I  ask,  are  you  the  person 
you  are  and  not  someone  else?  Why  is  it  that  one  indi¬ 
vidual  differs  from  every  other  individual?  Why  did  a 
distinguished  modern  philosopher  write,  “no  matter  how 
much  two  people,  say  twins,  look  alike,  talk  alike,  think 
alike,  or  feel  alike,  we  still  hold  that  they  are  different 
beings”?  Well,  the  reason  you  are  “this  person  and  not 
the  other”  is  because  you  possess  a  unique  life,  that  is, 
the  only  one  of  its  kind. 


123 


124 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


A  person  is  referred  to  as  a  man  of  strong  personality 
when  he  has  developed  his  own  or  unique  life.  This  de¬ 
velopment  of  the  unique  life  or  the  growth  in  personality 
is  conditioned  upon  direction  and  exercise.  The  direction 
is  towards  some  desirable  ideal;  the  exercise  is  the  effort 
required  to  grapple  with  and  overcome  those  obstacles 
that  would  prevent  the  realization  of  this  ideal.  In  short, 
growth  in  personality  is  a  struggle  onward  and  upward, 
through  conflict  and  conquest,  at  the  beckoning  of  the 
ideal.  Exercise  develops  vigor.  Hence  the  definition, 
“Personality  is  personal  force  or  power.”  I  would  qualify 
this  definition  and  have  it  read  thus — Personality  is 
unique  or  individual  personal  force  or  power. 

Personality,  then,  is  characterized  by  vigor  and  posi¬ 
tiveness.  May  I  make  a  negative  study?  You  have 
known  examples  of  those  supine,  effortless,  colorless  indi¬ 
viduals  who  repress  any  impulse  to  opinion  or  decision 
with  “I  don’t  know,”  or  “I  can’t.”  These  are  neutral 
personalities. 

Personality  is  a  word  that  is  bandied  about  a  good 
deal  in  these  days,  and  consequently  applied  with  little 
discrimination  and  mistaken  connotation.  How  often  we 
hear  this,  “He  does  not  know  much  about  the  subject,  but 
then  he  has  such  a  wonderful  personality.”  I  know  of 
some  who  are  growing  heartily  tired  of  “What  a  wonder¬ 
ful  personality.”  It  is  frequently  used  about  as  intelli¬ 
gently  as  “It  is  just  grand.”  Such  “personalities”  are  too 
often  distributors  of  “candied  mush”  and  sentimental 
bosh.  In  plain  words,  they  are  purveyors  of  flattery;  of 
flattery  for  selfish  ends;  of  unhealthy,  repulsive  flattery, 
that  mosquito-like  feeds  upon  the  immature  and  the 
mawkish  and  too  often  leaves  its  victims  morally  weak¬ 
ened  and  diseased.  Such  “personality”  makes  the  neurotic 
weep  and  the  “judicious  grieve.”  It  is  a  pseudo-per¬ 
sonality. 


PERSONALITY 


125 


Then  there  are  real  personalities.  The  real  progress  of 
the  individual  is  the  development  of  personality,  the 
growth  in  personal  force  and  power.  How  may  this  be 
accomplished?  I  know  of  no  other  way  than  by  over¬ 
coming.  If  you,  my  reader,  have  heard  of  another  way 
will  you  kindly  tell  me  about  it?  To  continue,  he  who 
would  develop  personality  must  be  unconquerable.  He 
may  be  temporarily  defeated,  he  is  never  permanently 
conquered.  He  must  be  able  to  say  with  Henley, 

“I  thank  whatever  gods  may  be 
For  my  unconquerable  soul. 

In  the  fell  clutch  of  circumstance, 

I  have  not  winced  or  cried  aloud, 

Under  the  bludgeonings  of  chance. 

My  head  is  bloody  but  unbowed.” 

Or  with  another  great  poet,  “We  fall  to  rise,  are  baffled 
to  fight  better.”  A  personality  so  developed  is  healthy, 
compelling,  real. 

If  the  public  speaker  will  add  the  magnetic  and  im¬ 
pelling  force  of  such  a  personality  to  the  authority  of 
thorough  preparation,  the  convincingness  of  clear  think¬ 
ing,  and  the  sincerity  of  conviction,  his  effort  must  be  in 
the  highest  degree  effective,  his  appeal  must  be  irresistible. 

ASSIGNMENTS 

I.  Memorize,  assimilate,  and  interpret  orally  each  of  the  fol¬ 
lowing,  allowing  yourself  to  respond  fully  to  the  theme,  the 
individual  conceptions,  and  the  spirit  of  the  selection: 

(a)  Out  of  the  night  that  covers  me, 

Black  as  the  pit  from  Pole  to  Pole, 

I  thank  whatever  gods  may  be 
For  my  unconquerable  soul. 


126 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


In  the  fell  clutch  of  circumstance, 

I  have  not  winced  or  cried  aloud, 

Under  the  bludgeonings  of  chance, 

My  head  is  bloody  but  unbowed. 

Beyond  this  place  of  wrath  and  tears 
Looms  but  the  horror  of  the  shade, 

And  yet  the  menace  of  the  years 
Finds  and  shall  find  me  unafraid. 

It  matters  not  how  strait  the  gate, 

How  charged  with  punishment  the  scroll, 

I  am  the  master  of  my  fate, 

I  am  the  captain  of  my  soul. 

Henley. 

(b)  At  the  midnight,  in  the  silence  of  the  sleep-time, 

When  you  set  your  fancies  free, 

Will  they  pass  to  where — by  death,  fools  think 
imprisoned — 

Low  he  lies  who  once  so  loved  you,  whom  you  loved  so, 
Pity  me? 

Oh  to  love  so,  be  so  loved,  yet  so  mistaken ! 

What  had  I  on  earth  to  do 
With  the  slothful,  with  the  mawkish,  the  unmanly? 
Like  the  aimless,  helpless,  hopeless,  did  I  drivel, 

Being  who? 

One  who  never  turned  his  back,  but  marched  breast 
forward, 

Never  doubted  clouds  would  break. 

Never  dreamed,  though  right  were  worsted,  wrong 
would  triumph, 

Held  we  fall  to  rise,  are  baffled  to  fight  better, 
sleep  to  wake. 

No,  at  noonday,  in  the  battle  of  man’s  worktime, 

Greet  the  unseen  with  a  cheer ! 

Bid  him  forward,  breast  and  back  as  either  should  be, 
“Strive  and  Thrive”  !  cry,  “Speed — fight  on,  fare  ever 
There  as  here !” 


Browning. 


PERSONALITY 


127 


A  SONG  TO  THE  VALIANT 

(c)  I’ll  walk  on  the  storm-swept  side  of  the  hill 
In  my  young  days,  in  my  strong  days, 

In  the  days  of  robust  pleasure. 

I’ll  go  where  the  winds  are  fierce  and  chill — 
On  the  storm-swept  side  of  the  daring  hill — 
And  there  will  I  shout  my  song  lays 
In  a  madly  tumbling  measure. 

Hilloo  the  dusk, 

And  hilloo  the  dark ! 

The  wind  hath  a  tusk 
And  I  wear  its  mark. 

The  day’s  last  spark  hath  a  valiant  will: 
Hilloo  the  dark  on  the  wind-swept  hill ! 

From  the  hour  of  pain 
Two  joys  we  gain — 

The  strife  and  the  after  leisure. 


When  the  fang  of  the  wind  is  bared  and  white, 
In  the  strong  days,  in  the  wild  days, 

In  the  days  that  laugh  at  sorrow, 

I  love  to  wander  the  hills  at  night — 

When  the  gleaming  fang  of  the  wind  is  white — 
Nor  yearn  a  whit  for  the  mild  days, 

Or  the  ease  of  life  to  borrow. 

Hilloo  the  whine 
In  the  pungent  cone 
Of  the  dreaming  pine 
On  the  hill,  alone  ! 

The  bare  trees  moan  with  a  dead  thing’s  cry; 
And  their  skeletons  crawl  along  the  sky, 

Like  a  dinosaur 
Who  would  live  once  more 

In  the  flesh  that  blooms  tomorrow. 

I’ll  walk  on  the  sheltered  side  of  the  hill 
In  my  old  days,  in  my  cold  days, 

As  the  sap  of  life  is  waning 

I’ll  find  a  road  where  the  trees  are  still — 


128 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


On  the  sheltered  side  of  the  placid  hill — 

And  dream  a  dream  of  the  bold  days 
When  the  leash  of  Time  was  straining 
Adieu  the  snows 
And  the  fang  that  rips  ! 

And  hilloo  the  rose 
With  her  velvet  lips  ! 

Where  the  brown  bee  sips  with  his  gorgeous  lust 
I’ll  pay  back  earth  with  her  borrowed  dust ; 

Nor  shall  I  grieve 
At  the  clay  I  leave 

But  joy  in  the  gifts  I’m  gaining. 

Lord,  hear  Thou  the  prayer  of  a  poet’s  soul, 

In  his  fire  days,  when  his  lyre  plays, 

And  his  song  is  swift  with  passion. 

Give  to  him  prowess  to  near  the  goal 
While  his  limbs  are  firm  and  his  sight  is  whole 
Make  brief  his  stay  in  the  dire  days 
When  the  paling  heart  is  ashen. 

The  storm-swept  sides 
Of  the  hill  belong 
To  the  soul  that  rides 
To  the  gates  of  song; 

May  his  days  be  long  where  the  wild  winds  play ; 
On  the  sheltered  side  let  him  briefly  stay ; 

When  his  muse  grows  dumb 
Let  the  darkness  come 

In  the  Orient’s  fine,  swift  fashion. 

Wilson  MacDonald. 


(d)  Under  the  wide  and  starry  sky, 

Dig  the  grave  and  let  me  lie. 

Glad  did  I  live  and  gladly  die, 

And  I  laid  me  down  with  a  will. 

This  is  the  verse  you  grave  for  me: 
Here  he  lies  where  he  longed  to  be, 
Home  is  the  sailor,  home  from  the  sea, 
And  the  hunter  home  from  the  hill. 


Stevenson. 


PERSONALITY 


129 


(e)  Then,  welcome  each  rebuff  that  turns  earth’s  smooth¬ 
ness  rough, 

Each  sting  that  bids  nor  sit  nor  stand  but  go ! 

Be  our  joys  three  parts  pain !  strive  nor  hold  cheap 
the  strain; 

Learn  nor  account  the  pang;  dare,  never  grudge  the 
throe ! 

Browning. 

II.  Select  a  subject  concerning  which  you  have  deep  convic¬ 
tions.  Let  the  treatment  of  the  material  be  based  upon 
clear  thinking  and  sincere  sentiment.  Let  the  delivery  be 
a  communication  of  individualized  and  logically  ordered 
ideas  and  a  spontaneous  expression  of  your  reaction  to 
those  ideas.  In  other  words,  let  it  be  at  once  logical  and 
intensely  sincere. 


XXV 


THE  SPONTANEOUS  EXPRESSION  OF  THE 

FEELING 

THE  imitative,  artificial,  and  superficial  elocution  of 
other  days — unfortunately  it  still  “drags  superflu¬ 
ous  on  the  stage” — went  to  the  ridiculous  length  of  pre¬ 
scribing  a  complete  set  of  rules  for  the  expressions  of  the 
emotions.  For  example,  one  rule  prescribed  a  high  pitch 
for  the  expression  of  joy,  and  another  a  low  pitch  for 
sorrow.  The  resulting  unreal  intonations  represented 
nearly  the  last  word  in  absurdity.  Trusting  that  in  the 
near  future  such  stupid,  preposterous,  and  ludicrous  rules 
will  all  be  relegated  to  the  limbo  of  things  worthless  and 
foolish,  I  will  not  transgress  any  further  upon  the  time  of 
my  reader  with  a  discussion  of  them. 

A  few  years  ago  I  read  an  amusing  description  of  a 
service  in  a  colored  church  “down  South”  in  a  popular 
novel  that  had  just  appeared.  The  parson  was  described 
as  a  very  impressive  individual,  rather  gorgeously  or 
loudly — it  depends  upon  one’s  point  of  view — apparelled. 
In  fact  he  was  “gotten  up  regardless.”  He  wore  prodig¬ 
iously  checked  trousers,  brown  coat,  and  vest  of  many 
colors,  among  which  red  and  yellow  predominated.  His 
kinky  hair  and  beard  glistened  from  a  generous  applica¬ 
tion  of  “hair  ile.”  He  began  the  delivery  of  his  sermon 
by  rolling  his  eyes  heavenward  and  assuming  a  “fare- 
you-well-Brother-Watkins”  tone.  As  he  contemplated  the 
unregenerate  condition  of  his  flock  his  voice  was  broken 
with  sobs,  and  tears  coursed  down  his  cheeks.  Then  he 
assumed  an  attitude  of  fierce  denunciation,  and  wound  up 

130 


EXPRESSION  OF  FEELING 


131 


in  a  wild  confusion  of  vocalization  and  gesticulation.  It 
was  thrilling — at  least  to  his  parishioners.  A  vivid  reali¬ 
zation  of  the  awfulness  of  their  unregeneracy  expressed 
itself  in  moans,  groans,  and  other  ejaculations. 

The  worthy  colored  preacher  worked  himself  up  to  an 
extravagant  display  of  superficial  emotionalism,  and  then 
just  “let  go.”  He  drifted  about  in  a  succession  of  moods, 
without  regard  to  relevancy  of  thought  or  suitability  of 
language. 

But,  my  reader  may  urge,  “you  have  chosen  an  extreme 
example.”  I  acknowledge  it.  However,  there  are  differ¬ 
ent  degrees  of  this  immoderate  and  uncontrolled  emotion¬ 
alism.  Our  colored  friend  was  simply  more  extravagant, 
that  was  all. 

Any  display  of  excessive  sentimentalism  in  public  speak¬ 
ing  is  repulsive  to  the  normal  hearer.  It  is  responsible 
for  the  popular  prejudice  against  any  expression  of  feeling 
or  emotion.  To  avoid  it  many  public  speakers  repress  all 
emotional  impulse,  no  matter  how  sincere.  This  is  a 
mistake.  The  result  is  a  suggestion  of  indifference  or 
lack  of  interest  that  is  fatal  to  effective  delivery.  Such  a 
speaker  mistakes  repression  for  control. 

I  shall  discuss  very  elementarily  and  hastily  the  genesis 
and  spontaneous  expression  of  emotion.  Associated  with 
or  included  in  every  conception  or  idea  or  thought  are 
certain  reactions  or  feelings  or  emotions.  These  reactions 
are,  of  course,  based  upon  previous  experiences.  For 
instance,  if  I  say  “Alum”  your  mouth  will  involuntarily 
pucker;  if  I  say  “Carrion”  you  will  be  nauseated;  if  I 
say  “Sunshine”  you  will  experience  a  feeling  of  pleasure. 
These  examples  are  elementary,  but  I  think  they  will 
serve  to  illustrate  the  point  with  sufficient  vividness. 
Then  when  the  attention  is  concentrated  upon  an  idea  the 
associated  feeling  is  generated  inevitably,  and,  if  not 
repressed,  will  express  itself  spontaneously. 


132 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


Now  how  can  emotions  be  controlled?  Sincere  feelings 
spring  spontaneously  and  immediately  from  ideas.  They 
are  anchored  to  ideas,  as  it  were,  and  thus  controlled.  The 
colored  speaker’s  moods  were  not  anchored  to  any  ideas, 
and  his  delivery  drifted  off  and  was  wrecked  on  the  rocks 
of  excess  and  extravagance.  To  put  the  matter  in  another 
way,  feelings  must  not  be  repressed  but  balanced  by 
thought. 

The  conclusion  of  the  matter  is,  therefore,  that  the 
emotions  issue  directly  from  the  ideas;  that  this  emotional 
spontaneity  should  not  be  repressed,  but  controlled;  that 
it  is  naturally  regulated  by  maintaining  the  relationship 
between  the  feelings  and  the  thought,  or  by  balancing  the 
feelings  and  the  ideas.  Clear  thinking,  then,  is  the  basis 
of  both  the  spontaneous  expression  and  the  control  of 
feeling  or  emotion  in  public  speaking. 

ASSIGNMENTS 

I.  Choose  some  poems  or  prose  extracts,  the  thought  and 
sentiments  of  which  you  have  sympathetically  assimilated. 
Read  or  recite  them  simply,  sincerely,  and  conversationally, 
as  if  for  congenial  friends.  Eliminate  repression  and  self- 
consciousness  by  a  complete  abandon,  or  an  unrestricted 
surrender  to  your  reactions. 

II.  Speak  upon  a  subject  with  which  you  are  conversant,  and 
concerning  which  you  have  strong  convictions.  Let  your 
delivery  be  a  direct,  conversational  expression  of  clearly 
defined  ideas  and  intense  feeling.  Let  your  surrender  to 
your  feelings  be  immediate,  involuntary,  unrestrained. 


XXVI 


VOICE  EDUCATION 

IT  is  difficult  properly  to  develop  a  voice  without  the 
personal  supervision  of  a  specialist  in  voice  culture. 
The  chief  reason  for  this  is,  no  matter  how  minute  the 
instructions  accompanying  prescribed  exercises  anyone 
attempting  to  train  his  own  voice  lacks  the  sensation  or 
consciousness  of  the  proper  functioning  of  the  agents, 
and  of  the  right  conditions  of  voice  production  necessary 
to  his  guidance.  The  most  common  faults  of  voice  are 
throatiness,  harshness,  hoarseness,  hardness,  lack  of 
resonance,  unresponsiveness,  inflexibility,  and  poor  carry¬ 
ing  power.  These  defects  arise  from  faulty  conditions  of 
voice  production;  chiefly  from  interferences  with  the  free 
vibrations  of  the  vocal  cords,  and  the  full  use  of  the 
resonance  space.  The  aim  in  voice  culture  is  to  substitute 
the  correct  condition  of  voice  production,  and  thus  by 
removing  the  cause,  eliminate  the  defects.  Then  for  the 
faults  enumerated  there  will  be  substituted  control,  free¬ 
dom,  resonance,  flexibility,  good  carrying  power,  and 
responsiveness  to  and  co-ordination  with  mental  processes. 
Voice  Education  is  designed,  as  someone  has  said,  “To 
make  poor  voices  good,  and  good  voices  better.” 

In  voice  training  exercises  should  be  practised  care¬ 
fully  and  regularly,  and,  upon  the  occasion  of  speaking  in 
public,  forgotten.  Then  the  improved  conditions  of  voice 
production  will  reveal  themselves  spontaneously  and  to 
the  degree  of  development. 

The  following  exercises  are  offered  with  the  hope  that 

1  on 

loo 


134 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


anyone  who  may  attempt  to  improve  his  voice  by  prac¬ 
tising  them  will  derive  some  benefit. 

I.  Exercises  for  Breathing: 

1.  Place  one  hand  on  the  diaphragm  or  across  the 
body,  just  below  the  breast  bone.  Inhale  and 
let  the  breath  focus  at  the  hand. 

2.  Endeavor  by  the  repetition  of  1  to  establish  the 
diaphragmatic  placing  and  control  of  breath, 
that  the  progress  will  be  involuntary.  Under  all 
circumstances,  whether  in  life  breathing  or 
breathing  for  vocalization,  the  inhalation  should 
focus  at  the  diaphragm. 

3.  Strengthen  the  diaphragm  and  develop  tone 
support. 

(a)  Breathe  in  and  out  slowly. 

(b)  Inhale  slowly  during  six  counts,  hold  the 
breath  during  two  counts,  exhale  during 
six  counts. 

(c)  Increase  the  length  of  time  of  inhalation 
and  exhalation. 

(d)  Inhale  a  large  breath  and  hold  it  as  long 
as  possible  at  the  diaphragm. 

4.  Take  the  exercises  given  under  2  and  3  with 
the  throat  muscles  relaxed.  In  other  words, 
co-ordinate  activity  at  the  diaphragm  with  pas¬ 
sivity  at  the  throat.  The  breath  must  be  con¬ 
trolled  at  the  diaphragm  and  not  by  constricting 
the  muscles  at  the  throat. 

5.  Rhythm  of  Breathing. 

The  object  in  developing  rhythmic  breathing 
is  to  render  the  breathing  in  expression  respon¬ 
sive  to  the  mental  processes  so  that  each  mental 
impulse  to  expression  will  stimulate  a  breath. 
Consequently,  for  expression,  frequent  breaths 
should  be  taken.  In  fact,  in  perfect  breathing 


VOICE  EDUCATION 


135 


for  speaking,  a  breath  should  be  taken  spon¬ 
taneously  for  the  expression  of  each  concep¬ 
tion. 

(a)  Breathe  in  and  out  slowly  and  regularly. 

(b)  Breathe  in  and  out  regularly,  but  with 
different  degrees  of  rapidity. 

(c)  Inhale  during  two  counts.  Vary  this  exer¬ 
cise  by  varying  the  number  of  counts. 

(d)  Divide  a  stanza  into  its  thought  phrases. 
Read  it  by  creating  the  conceptions,  and 
allowing  each  conception  to  generate  a 
breath  for  its  conception.  Thus  the  co¬ 
ordination  of  the  mental  and  vocal  proc¬ 
esses  may  be  stimulated.  Vary  this  exer¬ 
cise  by  using  not  only  different  stanzas 
but  also  prose  excerpts. 

II.  Exercises  for  vocalization : 

A  clear  and  definite  conception  of  the  tone  or 
combination  of  tones,  or  in  other  words,  of  the 
exercise,  must,  in  every  case  precede  the  pro¬ 
duction.  Practice,  to  be  effective,  must  be  in¬ 
telligent.  An  absolute  essential  of  good  tone  is 
good  support,  that  is  a  sufficient  quality  of 
breath  well  controlled  at  the  diaphragm.  Hence 
the  necessity  of  the  development  to  be  secured 
from  the  exercises  from  breathing.  Relax  the 
muscles  of  the  jaw  and  carefully  avoid  throat 
constriction  in  taking  different  exercises. 

(a)  Support  of  tone. 

1.  With  good  breath  conditions  sing  the 
vowel  a  as  in  father,  firmly  and  evenly 
during  five  counts. 

2.  Practise  1  varying  the  length  and 
strength  of  the  tone. 


136 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


(b)  Resonance  of  tone. 

1.  Sing  a 

2.  Sing  o  a 

4.  Sing  oo  o  a 

3.  Sing  ea 

Each  of  these  exercises  should  be  taken  on 
different  notes  of  the  scale. 

(c)  Flexibility  of  tone. 

1.  Practise  the  exercises  given  under 
Resonance  of  tone. 

2.  Sing  the  scale,  using  la. 

3.  Divide  a  stanza  into  its  thought  phrases. 
Sing  each  thought  phrase  on  a  different 
note.  Do  not  in  any  case  go  beyond 
the  singing  or  speaking  range.  How¬ 
ever,  it  is  well  to  seek  to  increase  the 
range,  but  this  must  be  done  with  the 
careful  avoidance  of  throat  constriction. 

(d)  Tone  Color. 

1.  Repeat  aloud  lyrics  that  make  a  strong 
appeal.  It  is  necessary  to  appreciably 
affect  the  voice  that  the  reader  shall 
read  the  lyrics  interpretatively  and  iden¬ 
tify  himself  with,  and  abandon  him¬ 
self  to,  the  experiences  and  emotions. 
Thus  will  he  not  only  develop  tone  color 
but  stimulate  responsiveness  in  the 
voice. 

(e)  Carrying  power  of  voice. 

Good  carrying  power  of  voice  depends  upon : 

(a)  Correct  conditions  of  tone  production. 

(b)  Conversational  attitude  towards  the 
audience. 

Thus  no  matter  how  large  a  space  the  audience 
may  occupy,  if  these  mental  and  vocal  condi- 


VOICE  EDUCATION 


137 


tions  prevail  the  voice  will  reach  individual  and, 
at  the  same  time  retain  its  conversational 
naturalness. 

1.  Sitting,  and  speaking  conversationally,  re¬ 
peat  a  stanza  or  paragraph  to  some  imaginary 
person  whom  you  imagine  seated  near  you. 

2.  Place  him  further  away  and  repeat  1.  Of 
course  the  expression  should  be  spontane¬ 
ously  accentuated. 

3.  Repeat  in  increasing  distances. 

4.  Practice  1,  2,  and  3  standing.  Be  careful  to 
retain  the  conversational  tone. 

It  was  not  the  intention  to  outline  a  comprehensive 
course  in  voice  culture,  either  in  process  or  exercise,  but 
rather  to  suggest  a  few  exercises  that  anyone  interested 
in  improving  his  voice  and  without  the  opportunity  of 
expert  supervision  might  practise  with  benefit. 


XXVII 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


HE  body  is  an  agent  of  expression.  Physical 


expression  is  termed  pantomime.  It  is  revealed  in 


gesture,  attitudes  of  the  body,  facial  expression,  etc.  In 
conversation  the  succession  of  conceptions  dominates  a 
continuously  varying  and  suggestively  expressive  panto¬ 
mime.  Therefore,  pantomime  is  a  natural,  spontaneous, 
and  necessary  form  of  expression  and  must  not  be  re¬ 
strained.  Nor,  on  the  occasion  of  reciting,  should  the 
reader  consciously  insert  gestures,  etc.  The  pantomime 
must  be  a  response  to  an  inner  impulse.  The  proper  con¬ 
dition  for  spontaneous  and  expressive  pantomime  is  that 
condition  of  ease,  freedom,  and  lack  of  self-conscious¬ 
ness  that  is  experienced  in  intimate  conversation. 

Since  anyone  can,  and  everyone  does,  experience  this 
condition  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  why  are  any  sug¬ 
gestions  in  physical  education  necessary?  Unfortunately, 
there  are  very  few  who  have  retained  their  normality 
physically  and  who  are  not  affected  by  muscular  constric¬ 
tions  and  self-consciousness.  There  are  very  few  who 
“feel  natural”  in  public  speaking.  Consequently,  training 
is  necessary  that  will  develop  the  free  and  natural  func¬ 
tioning  of  the  agents  of  expression  individually  and  as  a 
unity  and  the  coordination  of  this  unity  with  the  action 
of  the  mind  in  thinking.  The  vital  center  of  the  physical 
unity  is  the  chest.  As  in  the  case  of  the  suggestions  for 
vocal  training,  it  is  not  the  intention  to  outline  a  com- 

138 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


139 


prehensive  course  in  physical  training,  but  rather  to  pre¬ 
scribe  a  few  simple  exercises  which  will  tend,  if  practiced 
intelligently,  to  develop  desirable  physical  conditions  for 
expression. 

The  object  of  physical  training  for  expression,  then,  is 
to  induce  a  condition  of  responsiveness.  It  is  necessary, 
therefore,  to  give  exercises  for  the  liberation  of  the 
muscles  of  the  body.  But  for  anyone  to  stand  with  all 
the  muscles  released  would  suggest  devitalization.  The 
vital  center  must  be  established.  Then,  with  the  center 
established  and  the  parts  moving  freely  in  relation  to  that 
center,  freedom,  control,  and  ease  are  secured.  These  are 
the  physical  conditions  of  naturalness,  and,  when  they 
prevail,  the  reader  can  and  should  forget  all  about  ges¬ 
tures,  attitudes,  etc.  Then  the  body  will  respond  nor¬ 
mally,  animatedly,  and  suggestively.  The  resulting  pan¬ 
tomime  will  be  an  unobtrusive  and  harmonious  part  of 
the  expressional  unity. 

EXERCISES  FOR  ESTABLISHING  THE  VITAL  CENTER 

OF  THE  BODY 

1.  Place  one  hand  upon  the  center  of  the  chest  and  the 
other  across  the  back  and  directly  opposite  it.  Sepa¬ 
rate  the  hands  by  muscular  expansion,  not  by  breath 
expansion.  In  doing  this,  do  not  grip  the  throat 
muscles. 

2.  Place  the  tips  of  the  fingers  on  the  points  of  the 
shoulders.  With  the  arms  in  this  position,  stretch 
them  as  far  as  possible,  and  move  them  with  a  cir¬ 
cular  motion,  expanding  the  chest. 

3.  Raise  the  arms  to  a  vertical  position.  Clench  the 
hands.  Draw  them  down,  as  if  pulling  a  weight, 
and  expand  the  chest.  Do  not  grip  the  throat 
muscles. 


140 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


4.  Raise  the  arms  forward  and  to  a  horizontal  posi¬ 
tion.  Clench  the  hands.  Draw  back  quickly  and 
abruptly,  expanding  the  chest. 

5.  Stand  at  arm’s  length  from  the  wall.  Place  hands 
against  the  wall.  Touch  wall  with  chest.  Do  not 
bend  knees. 

EXERCISES  FOR  RELAXATION 

1.  Neck: 

Stand  or  sit  erect.  Let  the  head  fall  forward  on 
the  chest.  Relax  the  jaw.  With  this  condition  of 
relaxation,  move  the  head  to  side,  back,  and  front, 
describing  a  circle.  Describe  this  circle  with  the 
head  moving  first  to  the  right  and  then  to  the  left. 

2.  Shoulders : 

(a)  Stand  erect.  Raise  the  shoulders  with  the 
arms  relaxed.  Drop  them. 

(b)  With  relaxed  arms,  shake  or  sway  the  chest 
rapidly  from  side  to  side. 

(c)  Relax  the  arms.  Swing  them  in  a  circle,  first 
forward  and  then  backward,  with  the  shoulder 
as  center. 

3.  Arms: 

(a)  Stand  erect.  Raise  and  extend  the  arms  until 
they  are  on  a  level  with  the  shoulders.  Let 
them  drop  inertly.  Do  this  in  every  possible 
direction. 

(b)  Raise  and  extend  the  arms  until  they  are  on  a 
level  with  the  shoulders.  Then  relax  the  arm 
in  sections,  i.e.,  fingers,  wrists,  elbows,  and 
shoulders. 

(c)  Raise  and  extend  the  arms  over  the  head  by 
successively  energizing  the  muscles  of  the  up¬ 
per  arm,  wrist,  and  fingers.  Then  drop  the 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


141 


arm  by  relaxing  the  parts  in  the  reverse  order, 
i.e.,  fingers,  wrists,  lower  arm,  upper  arm. 

(d)  Raise  and  extend  the  arms  on  a  level  with 
shoulders  in  every  direction  possible  by  ener¬ 
gizing  the  parts  successively,  as  in  (c).  Also 
relax  the  parts  successively,  as  in  (c). 

(e)  Repeat  the  energizing  and  relaxing  of  the  parts 
of  the  arm  until  they  bend.  Then  the  arm 
will  gesture  naturally,  gracefully,  and  vigor¬ 
ously. 

4.  Fingers : 

Relax  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand.  Grasp  the  left 
hand  with  the  right  by  placing  the  thumb  of  the 
right  hand  in  the  palm  of  the  left  and  the  fingers  on 
the  back.  Shake  the  left  hand  until  the  fingers  feel 
limp  and  heavy.  Reverse  the  hands  and  repeat  the 
exercise. 

5.  Legs : 

Stand  well  balanced  or  poised,  with  the  weight  of 
the  body  on  the  right  foot.  Raise  the  left  leg  from 
the  hip.  Relax  the  muscles  from  the  knee  down. 
Drop  the  leg,  allowing  it  to  fall  by  its  own  weight. 
Change  the  weight  and  repeat  the  exercise. 

6.  Back : 

Sit  erect  and  square.  Let  the  head  fall  forward  as 
in  1.  Relax  the  shoulders  and  arms.  Then  relax 
the  muscles  of  the  back,  and  let  the  torso  drop  for¬ 
ward  of  its  own  weight.  Take  the  original  position 
in  the  reverse  order,  i.e.,  by  energizing  first  the  back 
and  then  the  neck.  Repeat  this  order  to  either  side. 

EXERCISES  FOR  POISE 

(a)  Stand  erect,  with  weight  on  both  feet.  Relax 
the  whole  body.  Then  assert  or  energize  the 
vital  center,  the  chest. 


142 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


(b)  Place  the  entire  weight  on  the  right  foot,  and 
repeat  the  exercise. 

(c)  Place  the  entire  weight  on  the  left  foot,  and 
repeat  the  exercise. 

Thus  the  center  of  the  body  is  asserted,  to  which  the 
parts  are  related  in  their  proper  relationship,  and  about 
which  they  function  naturally.  Control  and  responsive¬ 
ness  are  established.  The  natural  dignity,  ease,  and  free¬ 
dom  of  the  body  are  restored.  These  are  the  physical 
conditions  for  public  speaking.  They  are  the  conditions 
for  all  other  occasions.  By  developing  and  establishing 
these  physical  conditions  through  the  prescribed  exercises, 
and  then  forgetting  all  about  them  when  appearing  be¬ 
fore  an  audience,  naturalness  in  pantomimic  expression, 
unmodified  by  physical  constrictions,  will  be  substituted 
for  conscious  posturing,  affected  gesturing,  or  crude  and 
meaningless  gesticulation. 


XXVIII 


PROBLEMS 

THE  basic  aim  in  any  method  of  training  for  public 
speaking  should  be  to  endow  the  student  with  the 
ability  to  express  his  own  thinking  plainly.  Clearness 
and  sincerity  in  thinking,  lucidity  and  naturalness  in  de¬ 
livery  are  the  most  important  questions  in  training  for 
public  speaking.  The  method  of  teaching  public  speak¬ 
ing  through  the  memorization  and  delivery  of  the  great 
orations  has  not  proven  an  unqualified  success.  It  pro¬ 
vides  no  experience  in  the  expression  of  original  thinking. 
This  method  is  open  to  criticism  also  in  that  it  develops 
a  tendency  to  stress  the  form  rather  than  the  matter. 

I  have  substituted  a  method  of  training,  based  upon  a 
series  of  problems,  which  require  original  thinking  by 
the  student.  In  order  to  derive  full  value  from  these 
problems,  it  is  desirable  that  the  student  shall  make,  and 
thoroughly  impress  upon  his  mind,  an  outline  of  the  argu¬ 
ment  of  each  speech.  He  should  prepare  or  practise  the 
speech  for  delivery,  in  the  environment  of  public  speak¬ 
ing,  before  a  real  or  imaginary  audience.  Psychologi¬ 
cally,  it  is  not  absurd  to  practise  before  an  imaginary 
audience.  It  is  quite  as  valid  as  to  practise  before  a  real 
one.  The  student  should  apply  the  principles,  exercises, 
and  advice  contained  in  the  foregoing  chapters  of  this 
book.  He  should  not  write  the  speeches  out  in  full  and 
memorize  them.  As  a  result  of  this  method  of  prepara¬ 
tion,  the  speaker’s  attention  is  withdrawn  from  the 
thought  and  occupied  with  remembering  the  words. 

I  have  assigned  a  list  of  subjects  in  connection  with 

143 


344 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


the  series  of  problems.  No  given  topic  or  question  can 
be  interesting  to  everybody.  Yet  to  derive  the  greatest 
value  from  the  preparation  of  a  speech,  the  student  of 
speaking  must  be  interested  in  it.  However,  it  should  not 
require  the  exercise  of  very  great  originality  or  ingenuity 
to  select  a  suitable  and  interesting  theme. 

The  aims  of  the  prescribed  problems  are : 

1.  To  provide  training  in  the  search  for  material. 

2.  To  develop  discrimination  in  the  relevancy  or 
irrelevancy  and  the  saliency  or  subordination  of 
matter. 

3.  To  give  practice  in  the  effective  arrangement  of 
material. 

4.  To  stress  the  necessity  of  verifying  matter. 

5.  To  afford  experience  in  regarding  questions  from 
different  points  of  view. 

6.  To  train  to  alertness  in  criticism  and  refutation. 

7.  To  induce  pertinent  discussion. 

8.  To  treat  matter  vividly  by  the  apt  use  of  example, 
illustration,  and  comparison;  and,  interestingly,  by 
the  employment  of  examples  and  illustrations 
within  the  experience  of  the  hearers. 

9.  Through  clear  thinking,  to  induce  an  explicitness 
in  language,  a  simplicity  in  style,  and  a  frankness 
and  directness  in  delivery. 

10.  To  reinforce  clear  thinking  with  that  sincerity 
which  produces  conviction. 


1.  Read  a  number  of  selections  frcm  descriptive  lit¬ 
erature.  Tell  each  in  your  own  words. 

2.  Give  a  number  of  original  descriptions. 

3.  Read  a  number  of  stories.  Tell  each  in  your  own 
words. 

4.  Recount  a  number  of  original  experiences. 


PROBLEMS 


145 


5.  Choose  a  number  of  subjects.  Analyze  and  ex¬ 
plain  each  after  the  fashion  of  the  teacher. 

Choose  the  affirmative  or  the  negative  side  in  each  of 
the  following  problems,  and  then  deal  with  it  as  indicated 
in  the  accompanying  directions.  The  argument  or  the 
treatment  of  each  question  should  be  preceded  by  an 
introduction  and  followed  by  a  conclusion. 

The  introduction  should  call  the  attention  of  the 
hearers  to  the  nature  and  origin  of  the  subject  under 
consideration;  should  make  clear  the  reason  why  the 
question  deserves  the  attention  of  the  audience;  should 
aim  to  “render  the  audience  well-disposed  towards  the 
speaker’s  personality,  attentive  to  his  speech,  and  ready 
to  be  instructed  by  his  argument.” 

The  conclusion  should  be  a  concise  restatement  of  the 
main  points  that  were  made  in  the  development  of  the 
argument  of  the  speech.  The  recapitulation  of  the  main 
arguments  may  be  followed  by  a  personal  application  to 
the  audience  of  the  case  that  has  been  made  out  and  an 
appeal  based  upon  it.  The  nature  and  degree  of  the  ap¬ 
peal,  which  must  be  more  or  less  emotional,  must  be 
determined  to  a  great  extent  by  the  character  of  the  audi¬ 
ence.  A  highly  intellectual  audience  is  somewhat  skepti¬ 
cal  of  emotional  appeals.  The  conclusion,  then,  may  be  a 
summary  and  an  appeal. 

1.  Subject:  The  province  or  municipality  should 

provide  work  for  all  who  cannot  secure  employ¬ 
ment  for  themselves. 

Directions :  Give  three  reasons  in  support  of  the 
attitude  you  assume  on  the  question,  and  state 
your  conclusion. 

2.  Subject :  The  tendency  of  the  people  to  concentrate 

in  the  cities  is  detrimental  to  the  best  interests 
of  a  country. 


146 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


Directions :  Support  your  attitude  on  the  question 
with  three  reasons;  support  each  main  reason 
with  one  subsidiary  reason;  conclusion. 

3.  Subject :  Tariff  should  be  imposed  for  revenue 

only. 

Directions :  Support  your  attitude  on  the  question 
with  three  reasons;  support  each  main  reason 
with  two  subsidiary  reasons;  conclusion. 

4.  Subject:  Military  drill  should  be  compulsory  in 

public  schools. 

Directions :  Introduction ;  support  your  attitude  on 
question  with  four  reasons;  support  each  main 
reason  with  three  subsidiary  reasons;  conclu¬ 
sion. 

5.  Subject :  Prohibition  is  conducive  to  temperance. 
Directions :  Introduction ;  support  your  attitude  on 

question  with  two  reasons ;  support  the  contrary 
attitude  with  two  reasons;  give  two  arguments 
in  refutation  of  the  latter  two  reasons;  conclu¬ 
sion. 

6.  Subject :  Religion  should  be  taught  in  the  public 

schools. 

Directions :  Introduction ;  support  your  attitude  on 
question  with  two  reasons ;  support  the  contrary 
attitude  with  two  reasons;  give  two  arguments 
in  refutation  of  the  latter  two  reasons;  support 
each  argument  with  one  subsidiary  reason ;  con¬ 
clusion. 

7.  Subject :  Commercial  reciprocity  between  Canada 

and  the  United  States  would  benefit  Canada. 
Directions  :  Same  as  6,  but  with  two  subsidiary 
reasons  in  each  case. 

8.  Subject :  Farmers  are  justified  in  organizing  them¬ 

selves  into  a  new  political  party. 


PROBLEMS 


147 


Directions:  Same  as  6,  but  with  three  subsidiary 
reasons  in  each  case. 

9.  Subject :  Municipal  ownership  of  public  utilities  is 
desirable. 

Directions :  Same  as  1,  but  reinforce  each  reason 
with  an  example. 

10.  Subject :  The  government  should  enact  legislation 

providing  for  the  compulsory  arbitration  of  all 
labor  disputes  in  connection  with  public  service 
corporations. 

Directions :  Same  as  2,  but  reinforce  each  reason 
with  an  illustration  drawn  from  the  same  field. 
For  example,  if  you  were  considering  the  de¬ 
sirability  of  the  municipal  ownership  of  street 
cars  in  connection  with  the  city  of  A,  you  might 
refer  to  the  success  or  failure  of  their  operation 
by  the  city  of  B. 

11.  Subject:  The  government  should  inaugurate  a  sys¬ 

tem  of  medical  inspection  for  the  public  schools. 
Directions :  Same  as  3,  but  reinforce  each  reason 
with  an  illustration  drawn  from  another  field. 
For  example,  if  you  were  considering  the  sub¬ 
ject  of  organization  in  connection  with  church 
work,  you  might  illustrate  from  the  business 
world. 

12.  Subject :  The  right  of  suffrage  should  be  limited  to 

those  who  can  read  and  write. 

Directions :  Same  as  4,  but  reinforce  each  reason 
with  two  illustrations,  one  from  the  same  and 
one  from  another  field. 

13.  Subject :  Judges  should  be  elected  by  popular  vote. 
Directions  :  Same  as  5,  but  reinforce  each  reason 

with  two  illustrations,  one  from  same  and  one 
from  another  field. 


148 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


14.  Subject :  Women  should  receive  the  same  remuner¬ 

ation  as  men,  in  the  teaching  profession. 
Directions :  Same  as  6,  but  reinforce  each  reason 
with  two  illustrations,  one  from  the  same  and 
one  from  another  field. 

15.  Subject:  Chinese  immigrants  should  be  admitted 

on  the  same  conditions  as  those  from  Central 
Europe. 

Directions :  Same  as  7,  but  reinforce  each  reason 
with  two  illustrations,  one  from  same  and  one 
from  another  field. 

16.  Take  each  of  the  foregoing  problems  and  without 

sacrificing  relevancy  of  thought  allow  yourself 
freedom  of  discussion  in  connection  with  each 
point. 

17.  Prepare  a  ten -minute  speech  on  a  rural  topic  for  a 

rural  audience. 

18.  Prepare  a  ten-minute  speech  on  an  urban  topic  for 

an  urban  audience. 

19.  Prepare  a  ten-minute  speech  on  a  rural  topic  for  an 

urban  audience.  The  difference  in  treatment 
between  the  17  and  19  will  be  in  the  method  of 
illustration. 

20.  Prepare  a  ten-minute  speech  on  an  urban  topic  for 

a  rural  audience.  The  difference  of  treatment 
between  18  and  20  will  be  in  the  matter  of 
illustration. 

21.  Subject:  Life  imprisonment  should  be  substituted 

for  capital  punishment. 

Directions:  (a)  Discuss  the  nature,  origin  and 

facts  of  the  question. 

(b)  Discuss  the  general  reaction  of 
the  question. 

(c)  Discuss  your  personal  reaction  to 
the  question. 


Appendix 


HINTS  FOR  ORGANIZING  AND  CONDUCTING 

A  DEBATING  SOCIETY 

There  was  a  time  when  the  Debating  Society  was 
an  institution  in  every  community.  It  afforded  every 
ambitious  young  person  an  opportunity  for  self-improve¬ 
ment.  Every  sort  of  question  was  debated  with  a  deter¬ 
mination  to  win.  Participation  in  these  debates  entailed 
extensive  reading  and  deep  thought,  and  produced  alert, 
clear,  and  persuasive  speakers.  Someone  has  asserted, 
and  with  justification,  that  these  debating  societies  were 
the  nursery  of  the  great  orators  of  those  days. 

For  some  time  subsequent  to  the  period  referred  to, 
the  people  seemed  to  lose  interest  in  public  discussions. 
The  debating  society  became  almost  extinct.  Synchro¬ 
nous  with  this  was  a  notable  decline  in  the  number  of 
outstanding  speakers  and  in  the  quality  of  oratory. 

Recently,  however,  there  has  developed  a  remarkable 
recrudescence  of  interest  in  public  speaking.  One  result 
of  this  re-awakening  has  been  the  organization  of  de¬ 
bating  societies  in  almost  every  community  throughout 
the  country. 

Since  the  debating  society  affords  most  favorable 
opportunities  for  the  profitable  application  of  the  prin¬ 
ciples  and  suggestions  offered  in  this  book,  I  have  thought 
it  well  to  append  practical  information  and  directions  for 
the  guidance  of  those  who  may  be  interested  in  the 
organization  and  functioning  of  such  a  body. 

140 


150 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


HOW  TO  ORGANIZE  A  DEBATING  SOCIETY 

The  organization  of  a  debating  society  or  club  should 
be  simple.  The  individual  in  any  community  who  is 
sufficiently  interested  to  take  the  initiative  in  the  organi¬ 
zation  of  the  society  should  select  from  his  acquaintances 
two  or  three — always  a  very  limited  number — of  those 
he  deems  to  be  most  interested  and  influential.  He  should 
take  them  completely  into  his  confidence  and  invite  their 
co-operation. 

Having  fully  discussed  the  purpose  and  the  mode  of 
operation  of  the  proposed  club,  in  order  to  have  some¬ 
thing  definite  and  tangible  to  announce,  the  self-appointed 
temporary  committee  should  notify  those  likely  to  be 
interested.  The  notification  of  the  purpose,  place,  and 
hour  of  the  first  meeting  may  be  given  by  oral  or  written 
invitation.  If  it  is  more  desirable  that  the  notice  should 
be  general,  it  should  be  given  by  public  announcement. 

When  those  interested  are  gathered  at  the  time  and 
place  fixed  upon,  someone — usually  the  person  who  has 
taken  the  initiative  in  connection  with  the  formation  of 
the  society — calls  the  meeting  to  order  and  nominates 
someone  to  act  as  chairman  by  saying,  ‘‘I  move  that  Mr. 
A  be  chairman.”  When  the  nomination  is  seconded,  he 
puts  the  question  to  the  meeting.  This  is  done  by  saying, 
“Those  in  favor  of  Mr.  A  will  indicate  it  by  raising  the 
right  hand,”  or,  “By  saying  ‘Aye/  ”  When  the  ayes  have 
been  counted,  he  should  call  for  the  noes.  If  the  noes  are 
in  the  majority,  another  nomination  must  be  asked  for. 
If  the  ayes  are  in  the  majority,  he  will  declare  Mr.  A 
elected.  Mr.  A  then  takes  the  chair  and  calls  for  nomi¬ 
nations  for  the  office  of  secretary.  With  the  choice  of 
secretary,  who  is  elected  in  the  same  way  as  the  chair¬ 
man,  the  meeting  is  prepared  for  business. 

The  next  step  is  a  formal  statement  of  the  object  of 


APPENDIX 


151 


the  meeting.  The  chairman  now  calls  upon  someone 
competent  to  do  this.  The  person  designated  should  state 
the  purpose  of  the  meeting,  discuss  the  nature  of  the  work 
to  be  undertaken  by  the  society,  and  urge  the  benefits 
to  be  derived  from  active  membership.  Then  he,  or  some¬ 
one  else,  should  move  that  those  present  should  proceed 
to  organize  a  debating  society.  When  the  motion  is 
seconded  and  carried,  a  committee  should  be  appointed 
to  draw  up  a  constitution. 

The  Committee  on  the  Constitution  should  withdraw 
until  the  draft  is  completed,  and  then  return  and  present 
it  to  the  meeting.  The  members  of  the  gathering  have 
the  right  to  discuss  each  article  when  it  is  read,  and  move 
and  adopt  such  amendments  as  will,  in  their  estimation, 
improve  it.  The  constitution,  as  it  is  finally  adopted,  is 
the  law  governing  the  members  in  their  relations  to  the 
club.  The  officers  provided  by  the  constitution  are  the 
interpreters  and  administrators  of  the  terms  of  the  con¬ 
stitution. 

It  is  desirable,  for  the  future  success  of  a  debating 
society,  to  get  off  to  a  good  start.  Consequently,  as  soon 
as  the  constitution  is  adopted,  it  is  well  to  invite  those 
who  wish  to  become  members  to  sign  it  and  pay  whatever 
fee  is  required.  Then  the  members  should  at  once  elect 
such  officers  as  are  provided  for  by  the  constitution.  Of 
course  these  officers  must  be  elected  from  the  duly  quali¬ 
fied  members. 

The  society  is  now  in  a  position  to  arrange  a  program 
for  the  next  meeting.  This  should  be  done  before 
adjournment. 

THE  CONSTITUTION 

The  following  is  a  simple  form  for  the  constitution 
of  a  debating  society.  This  constitution  may  be  modi¬ 
fied  at  the  will  of  the  society  and  according  to  the  condi¬ 
tions  providing  for  amendments  to  the  constitution. 


152 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


PREAMBLE 

We,  the  members  of  the - Debating  Society 

of - believing  that  it  is  to  our  advantage  to 

institute  and  maintain  a  Society  devoted  to  debating  and  asso¬ 
ciated  subjects,  and  that  membership  in  such  a  Club  and  par¬ 
ticipation  in  its  activities  will  encourage  a  spirit  of  fellowship, 
provide  means  of  intellectual  interest  and  entertainment,  en¬ 
courage  a  search  for  information,  stimulate  a  desire  for  knowl¬ 
edge,  afford  opportunity  for  developing  the  power  of  effective 
public  speaking,  familiarize  with  the  questions  of  the  day, 
develop  clear  thinking  and  mental  alertness,  foster  independent 
judgment,  and  promote  intelligent  citizenship,  do  establish  and 
adopt  this  constitution. 


Article  I 
NAME 

This  Society  shall  be  known  as -  Debating 

Society  of - . 


Article  II 
MEMBERSHIP 

Section  1.  Any  person  of  good  character  may  be  admitted  to 
membership  by  affixing  his  signature  to  the  Constitution  and 
paying  the  initiation  fee  (if  any  is  required). 

Section  2.  Any  member,  who  violates  or  evades  the  rules  of 
the  Constitution;  or  persistently  neglects  or  refuses  to  perform 
the  assignments  alloted  to  him  by  the  programme  committee;  or 
refuses  to  be  controlled  by  the  rules  of  procedure  governing 
public  assemblies  and  debating  contests  as  interpreted  and 
administered  by  the  President  or  the  President  pro  tern,  or  the 
Chairman  of  the  Debate;  or  neglects  to  perform  such  financial 
obligations  as  membership  in  the  Club  entails,  may  be  expelled 
by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  members  present. 


APPENDIX 


153 


Section  3.  A  vote  shall  not  be  taken  on  a  motion  to  expel  until 
the  first  meeting  following  that  at  which  it  was  offered. 

Section  4.  Any  member,  expelled  by  the  Society,  may  be  rein¬ 
stated  upon  an  assenting  vote  of  two-thirds  of  the  members 
present. 


Article  III 
OFFICERS 

Section  1.  The  Officers  of  the - Debating  Society 

shall  be  a  President,  Vice-President,  Secretary,  Treasurer,  and 
a  Programme  Committee.  These  officers  shall  be  elected  by  a 
majority  vote. 

Section  2.  The  term  of  office  in  the  Society  (after  the  first 
term)  shall  be  one  year  and  until  the  election  and  qualification  of 
successors.  The  length  of  the  first  term  shall  be  decided  upon 
at  the  first  election  of  Officers. 

Section  3.  The  election  of  Officers  shall  take  place  on  the 
- day  of  the  month  of - . 

Section  4.  The  President  shall  preside  at  all  meetings,  state 
the  question  for  debate,  introduce  each  speaker,  and  announce  the 
decision  of  the  Judges. 

Section  5.  The  Vice-President  shall  perform  the  duties  speci¬ 
fied  in  Section  4,  in  case  of  the  inability  or  refusal  of  the 
President  to  do  so. 

Section  6.  The  Secretary  shall  perform  the  duties  belonging 
to  his  office.  He  shall  keep  a  record  of  “the  things  done  and 
passed”  in  the  Society,  but  not  of  things  said  and  moved.  It  is, 
however,  “generally  expected  of  the  Secretary  that  his  record 
shall  be  a  journal  and,  in  some  sort,  a  report  of  proceedings.” 

Section  7.  The  Treasurer  shall  receive  and  hold  all  the 
moneys  of  the  Society;  and  shall  disburse  moneys  only  upon  the 
signed  orders  of  the  President  acting  upon  the  instructions  of  the 
Society.  The  Treasurer  shall  present  written  report  at  the 
Annual  Meeting  of  the  Society. 

Section  8.  The  Programme  Committee  shall  select  proposi¬ 
tions  for  debating,  assign  the  affirmative  and  negative  speakers, 
select  the  Judges  of  debate,  and  make  whatever  assignments  and 
arrangements  may  be  necessary.  The  Programme  Committee 
shall  do  this  not  later  than  the  preceding  meeting. 


154 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


Article  IV 
MEETINGS 

Meetings  shall  be  as  follows : — 

Section  1.  Regular  Meeting  on  (Friday)  of  (each  alternate 
week). 

Section  2.  Annual  Meeting  on  the  -  of  (April)  for 

hearing  the  Reports  of  the  Secretary  and  Treasurer,  and  for 
electing  Officers. 


Article  V 

FEES  AND  ASSESSMENTS 

Section  1.  The  initiation  shall  be  (fifty  cents). 

Section  2.  The  dues  shall  be  (five  cents)  per  month. 

Section  3.  Special  assessments  may  be  levied  by  a  two-thirds 
vote  of  those  present. 


Article  VI 
AMENDMENTS 

Any  member  may  propose  amendments  to  the  Constitution. 
Notice  of  Amendment  must  be  presented  in  writing  at  the  pre¬ 
ceding  meeting.  An  amendment  to  the  Constitution  shall  be 
declared  carried  on  a  majority  vote. 

HOW  TO  CONDUCT  A  DEBATE 

How  shall  debating  be  conducted  in  order  that  the 
greatest  value  shall  accrue  to  the  members,  or  in  order 
that  they  shall  receive  the  best  training  for  the  public  dis¬ 
cussion  of  the  questions  of  practical  life?  I  shall  outline 
different  methods  of  conducting  a  debate,  and  endeavor 
to  arrive  at  that  method,  which  will  be  of  the  greatest 
advantage  to  the  whole  society.  1.  Intensive  Debating — 
In  this  type  of  debating  a  topic  is  assigned.  A  limited 


APPENDIX 


155 


number  of  persons — usually  three — is  chosen  to  present 
and  defend  either  side  of  the  question.  Each  speaker  is 
allotted  a  definite  time  to  present  the  phase  of  the  question 
he  essays  to  discuss,  and  to  refute  the  arguments  of  his 
opponents.  The  members  of  each  group  select  their  own 
leader  and  assign  to  each  individual  the  aspect  of  the 
question  from  their  point  of  view,  that  he  is  to  advocate 
and  defend.  This  prevents  unnecessary  overlapping  and 
allows  opportunity  for  the  greatest  advantage  to  be  taken 
of  the  allotted  time.  Each  leader,  in  addition  to  intro¬ 
ducing  his  side  of  the  question,  sums  up,  at  the  conclusion 
of  the  debate,  and  thus  is  permitted  two  speeches.  The 
amount  of  time  allowed  for  each  speech  should  be  such  as 
to  render  neither  the  individual  arguments  nor  the  whole 
debate  wearisome  for  the  audience.  The  question  should 
be  assigned  and  the  debaters  chosen  by  the  programme 
committee.  Interruptions  by  the  debaters  during  the 
progress  of  the  debate  are  not  permitted  except  when  a 
contestant  transgresses  the  rules  of  debating. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  INTENSIVE  DEBATING 

(a)  The  direct  contest  between  the  two  sides,  and  the 
struggle  for  victory  is  a  strong  incentive  to  thorough 
preparation. 

(b)  The  rivalry  and  the  consequent  thorough  prepara¬ 
tion  induce  logical  thinking,  less  irrelevancy  in  statement, 
greater  alertness  in  the  detection  of  fallacies,  and  more 
effective  delivery.  In  other  words,  it  is  the  best  means  of 
developing  skill  in  debating. 

(c)  The  necessity  for  the  preparation  of  both  sides  of 
the  question  is  emphasized.  Daniel  Webster  once  said 
that  if  he  had  time  for  the  preparation  of  but  one  side  of 
a  question,  he  would  devote  it  to  that  of  his  opponent. 
The  value  of  such  preparation  for  purposes  of  refutation 
must  be  apparent. 


156 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


DISADVANTAGES  OF  INTENSIVE  DEBATING 

(a)  Too  few  participate  with  a  consequent  tendency 
to  the  lessening  of  the  general  interest  in  the  work  of  the 
society. 

(b)  On  account  of  the  somewhat  automatic  function¬ 
ing  it  does  not  provide  the  best  opportunity  for  training 
in  parliamentary  procedure. 

(c)  A  debater  may  be  assigned  the  side  of  a  question 
that  is  contrary  to  his  convictions.  His  argumentation 
must  necessarily  be  formal,  and  insincere.  Consequently 
he  does  not  derive  the  maximum  of  benefit  from  his  effort. 

2.  General  Debating. — In  this  type  of  debating,  a  prop¬ 
osition  is  assigned  to  the  whole  club.  Each  member  is 
expected  to  take  part  in  the  debate  and  to  speak  according 
to  his  convictions.  General  debating  very  closely  ap¬ 
proaches  the  conditions  of  discussion  in  the  majority  of 
public  meetings. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  GENERAL  DEBATING 

(a)  Each  member  is  enabled  to  debate  according  to 
his  sentiments. 

(b)  An  excellent  opportunity  is  offered  for  the  prac¬ 
tice  of  parliamentary  procedure,  since  the  order  of  speak¬ 
ing  is  not  assigned  beforehand  to  the  speakers. 

DISADVANTAGES  OF  GENERAL  DEBATING 

(a)  There  is  not  the  same  inducement  to  thorough 
preparation. 

(b)  There  is  a  tendency  for  those  who  are  diffident 
about  speaking  in  public  to  defer  to  those  who  are  not  so 
afflicted.  Thus  those  who  are  in  the  greatest  need  of  the 
experience  do  not  benefit  by  their  opportunities. 

3.  Direct  and  General  Debating. — The  greatest  degree 
of  improvement  can  be  secured  by  a  form,  that  is  a  com- 


APPENDIX 


157 


bination  of  intensive  or  direct  and  a  modified  general 
debating.  The  organization  of  such  a  debate  is  simple. 
The  programme  committee  assigns  the  subject  and  chooses 
(three)  debaters  to  support  each  side,  and  also  prepares 
a  list  of  the  remaining  members  of  the  club,  other  than 
those  who  are  acting  as  chairman,  judges,  etc.  Each 
debater  from  the  general  list,  when  called  upon,  is  ex¬ 
pected  to  speak  according  to  his  convictions.  Thus,  the 
first  part  of  the  debate  is  carried  on  after  the  method 
designated  “Intensive  Debating,”  and  the  latter,  approxi¬ 
mates  “General  Debating.”  The  time  allotted  for  each 
speech  in  the  general  debate  should  be  much  less  than  that 
allotted  for  each  speech  in  the  direct  debate. 

This  method  includes  all  the  advantages  of  both  Inten¬ 
sive  and  General  Debating. 

SUBJECTS  FOR  DEBATING 

The  subject  of  a  debate  should  be  interesting  alike  to 
the  debaters  and  to  the  audience.  The  questions  best 
qualified  to  engage  the  attention  are  those  that  are  related 
to  practical  life.  For  example,  there  is  a  marked  tendency 
on  the  part  of  college  students,  at  the  present  time,  to 
choose  questions  that  are  connected  with  their  studies. 

A  short  time  ago  I  attended  a  debate  between  repre¬ 
sentatives  of  the  student  bodies  of  two  of  the  great 
universities.  The  chairman,  referring  to  the  more  prac¬ 
tical  nature  of  the  questions  chosen  for  formal  debating 
at  the  present  time,  made  humorous  reference  to  the  sub¬ 
jects  of  debate,  where  he  was  a  student.  “For  instance,” 
he  said,  “I  recall  that  we  debated  on  this  proposition, 
‘Resolved,  that  the  chicken  is  of  more  value  to  the  human 
race  than  the  cow.’  After  we  had  debated  the  question 
‘long  and  loud/  we  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the 
chicken  was  of  greater  value  to  the  human  race  than  the 
cow,  since  it  could  be  eaten  before  it  was  born  and  after 


158 


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it  was  dead.”  He  went  on  to  say  that  the  subjects  chosen 
for  college  debates  of  long  ago  reminded  him  of  a  debate 
between  two  teams  of  colored  debaters.  After  wrestling 
strenuously  and  furiously  with  the  proposition,  “Resolved, 
that  the  moon  is  of  greater  value  to  the  human  race  than 
the  sun,”  the  decision  was  announced  in  favor  of  the 
affirmative,  because  it  was  clearly  proven  that  the  sun 
shone  in  the  day  time  when  it  was  not  needed. 

The  following  types  of  subjects  should  be  avoided: 

(a)  Those  that  are  of  no  interest  to  those  concerned 
with  the  debate. 

(b)  Those  that  are  so  palpably  true  that  there  is  no 
basis  for  a  difference  of  opinion,  e.g.,  “Any  side  of  a 
square  is  equal  to  any  other  side  of  the  same  square,”  or 
“The  barbarities  committed  by  the  German  soldiers  in  the 
great  war  were  censurable,”  or  “Gladstone  was  a  great 
statesman.” 

The  most  suitable  subjects  for  effective  debating,  as  I 
intimated  earlier  in  this  article,  are  those  that  possess  a 
real  interest  for  those  participating  in  the  debate,  and  for 
the  audience.  The  most  promising  sources  for  such  ques¬ 
tions  are  to  be  found  in  the  practical  life  of  today,  in  the 
political,  international,  social,  industrial,  educational,  and 
economic  conditions  and  movements  of  the  times. 

The  following  list  of  subjects  will  serve  to  illustrate : 

International — The  League  of  Nations  is  a  guarantee 
against  future  wars. 

Political — (Dominion)  A  high  tariff  is  necessary  for 
the  prosperity  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada;  (Provincial)  ; 
Group  government  is  detrimental  to  the  best  interests  of 
the  people  of  the  Province  of  Ontario;  (Municipal); 
Dominion  or  provincial  party  lines  should  be  ignored  in 
municipal  elections. 

Social — Children  under  sixteen  years  of  age  should  be 
prohibited  by  provincial  law  from  working  in  factories. 


APPENDIX 


159 


Educational — The  Provincial  Government  should  enact 
legislation  providing  for  a  system  of  consolidated  schools 
in  the  rural  sections  of  the  Province  of  (name  of  prov¬ 
ince). 

Industrial — State  boards  of  arbitration,  with  compul¬ 
sory  powers,  should  be  appointed  to  settle  disputes 
between  employers  and  employees. 

Economic — Tariff,  for  protective  purposes  only,  upon 
goods,  the  manufacture  of  which  has  been  established  in 
Canada,  should  be  withdrawn ;  or,  Commercial  reciprocity 
with  the  United  States  is  necessary  to  prosperity  in 
Canada;  or,  Canada  should  seek  to  establish  commercial 
reciprocity  with  the  United  States. 

The  members  of  the  program  committee  of  a  debating 
society  can  select  many  excellent  subjects  for  spirited 
debating  from  questions  of  public  interest  in  their  own 
community. 


THE  PROPOSITION 

A  definition  for  debate  is,  argumentation  for  and 
against.  This  implies  that  in  a  debate  there  are  two  sides 
to  the  subject  that  is  being  discussed. 

When  a  subject  is  offered  for  debate  it  should  be  pre¬ 
sented  in  such  a  form  as  to  indicate  two  distinct  sides — 
an  affirmative  and  a  negative.  The  only  rhetorical  form 
that  lends  itself  to  such  a  suggestion  is  the  proposition, 
e.g.,  Resolved,  that  capital  punishment  should  be  abol¬ 
ished.  Clearly,  in  this  example,  there  are  two  sides,  the 
affirmative,  “It  should  be  abolished,”  and  the  negative, 
“It  should  not  be  abolished.” 

Questions  may  be  of  two  kinds,  fact,  and  policy  or 
theory.  The  particular  nature  of  a  question  determines 
the  wording  of  the  proposition.  For  example,  the  propo¬ 
sition,  “Resolved,  that  the  alliance  between  Great  Britain 
and  Japan  is  in  the  interest  of  world  peace,”  is  based  upon 


160 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


a  fact,  something  that  exists  now,  and  the  debate  is  a  dis¬ 
cussion  of  whether  the  status  quo  shall  or  shall  not  be 
continued,  and  the  proposition,  “Resolved,  that  there 
should  be  educational  qualifications  for  voting,”  gives 
expression  to  a  question  of  policy,  and  the  debate  upon 
the  question  consists  in  offering  arguments  in  support  of 
the  desirability  or  the  undesirability  of  adopting  that 
policy.  In  a  question  of  fact,  the  verb  “to  be”  is  used.  In 
a  question  of  policy  or  theory,  it  is  customary  to  use 
“should.” 

A  proposition  should  be  phrased  so  clearly  that  each 
debater,  if  he  is  sincere,  will  place  the  same  interpretation 
upon  it.  This  enables  the  contestants  to  debate  the  real 
issue  intended  by  the  framers  of  the  question.  If  there  is 
ambiguity  in  the  wording  of  the  proposition,  the  debate 
may  degenerate  into  a  mere  dispute  over  the  meanings  of 
terms.  Take  the  proposition,  “Resolved,  that  the  govern¬ 
ment  should  discourage  the  inculcation  of  a  spirit  of 
militarism  in  the  pupils  of  the  public  schools.”  What 
“government,”  federal  or  provincial?  What  is  meant  by 
“militarism” — defence,  aggression,  or  both?  It  may 
readily  be  seen  that  if  there  is  not  an  agreement  as  to  the 
interpretation  of  the  terms  of  a  question  the  fundamental 
issue  may  be  forgotten  in  the  debate. 

A  proposition  should  include  but  one  idea  or  main  issue. 
Thus  the  opponents  in  a  debate  are  compelled  to  “come  to 
grips.”  Should  the  proposition  contain  two  ideas  of  ap¬ 
proximately  equal  importance,  the  affirmative  might 
choose  to  make  one  of  the  ideas  the  main  issue,  and  the 
negative  the  other.  Consequently  the  debate  would  be  a 
failure  since  each  side  would  be  discussing  a  different 
issue.  In  the  proposition,  “Resolved,  that  the  Depart¬ 
ment  of  Education  of  the  Province  of  (Ontario)  should 
eliminate  military  drill  from  the  public  schools  since  it 
inculcates  a  spirit  of  militarism,”  there  are  clearly  two 


APPENDIX 


161 


main  issues,  and,  as  a  result,  the  proposition  is  unsatis¬ 
factory  for  a  debating  society.  Then  a  question  may  be 
too  broad  and  involve  more  than  one  issue.  The  question, 
“Resolved,  that  the  policy  of  the  Government  of 
(Ontario)  is  in  the  best  interests  of  the  province,”  is 
faulty  for  debating  purposes  since  the  policy  of  a  govern¬ 
ment  includes  every  phase  of  its  legislation — financial, 
educational,  social,  agricultural,  etc.  It  is  evident  that 
there  are  a  number  of  main  issues. 

It  is  customary  to  word  a  proposition  affirmatively. 
This  places  the  burden  of  proof  upon  those  who  uphold 
the  affirmative  side.  Thus,  in  the  proposition,  “Resolved, 
that  the  Chinese  should  be  excluded  from  Canada,”  the 
affirmative  is  required  to  advocate  a  change  in  the  policy 
of  the  Canadian  Government  in  regard  to  Chinese  immi¬ 
gration,  and  consequently  shoulder  the  burden  of  showing 
the  desirability  of  a  change. 

A  proposition  should  be  worded  simply,  concisely,  defi¬ 
nitely,  and  accurately.  These  characteristics  in  phrasing 
will  make  for  clearness,  unanimity  in  interpretation,  and 
as  a  result,  for  effective  and  satisfactory  debating. 

A  proposition  should  be  phrased  so  as  to  avoid  giving 
either  side  an  advantage.  In  the  proposition,  “Resolved, 
that  the  superior  generalship  of  Wellington  was  the  sole 
cause  of  Napoleon’s  defeat  at  Waterloo,”  the  word 
“superior”  makes  all  discussion  futile.  It  is  an  example 
of  “begging  the  question.” 

ORDER  AND  FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  SPEAKERS 

The  plan  outlined  in  this  section  for  the  speakers  in  a 
formal  or  direct  debate  is  only  a  suggestion.  It  is  one 
way.  Several  desirable  modifications  might,  no  doubt, 
be  suggested. 

In  order  to  directly  and  immediately  arrive  at  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  this  article,  I  will  assume  that  the  “proposition” 
is  phrased  affirmatively,  that  it  involves  but  one  main 


162 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


issue,  and  that  this  issue  is  so  clearly  stated  and  empha¬ 
sized  that  no  one  of  ordinary  perspicuity  could  miss  it. 
I  will  also  take  for  granted  that  there  are  three  speakers 
on  each  side,  that  each  speaker  will  be  permitted  one 
speech,  that  each  speech  will  be  limited  to  a  specified  time, 
and  that  the  debate  will  be  closed  by  a  second  speech  by 
each  of  the  leaders,  that  the  negative,  as  well  as  the 
affirmative,  will  present  constructive  arguments,  and  that 
each  speaker  is  assigned  the  phase  of  the  constructive 
argument  that  he  will  develop. 

The  leader  of  the  affirmative  opens  the  debate  by  dis¬ 
cussing  the  question  briefly  and  generally,  explaining  the 
meaning  of  the  terms,  defining  the  main  issue,  accepting 
frankly  the  burden  of  the  proof,  stating  what  he  and  his 
colleagues  hope  to  prove,  and  outlining  the  organization 
of  the  affirmative  argument,  that  is,  announcing  the 
phases  of  the  question  that  each  is  assigned  to  attack  or 
support.  He  then  proceeds  to  discuss  the  particular 
aspect  of  the  case  that  has  been  assigned  to  himself. 

The  leader  of  the  negative  follows.  If  the  interpre¬ 
tation  placed  upon  the  question,  and  the  definition  of  the 
main  issue  by  the  affirmative  be  just  and  fair,  the  leader 
of  the  negative  should  state  frankly  that  he  accepts  them. 
To  do  otherwise  would  convey  an  impression  of  insin¬ 
cerity  and  prejudice  his  case  with  the  judges.  He  should, 
then,  endeavor  to  refute,  concisely  and  convincingly,  the 
main  arguments  offered  by  his  opponent.  He  should  not 
devote  the  whole  of  his  period  to  refutation,  but  should 
reserve  a  part  of  it  to  present  arguments  in  support  of  the 
view  or  the  solution  of  the  problem,  that  he  and  his 
colleagues  have  decided  to  advocate.  For  example,  in 
the  question,  “Resolved,  that  Orientals  should  be  excluded 
from  Canada,”  the  negative,  in  attacking  the  policy  sug¬ 
gested  by  the  affirmative,  places  itself  under  obligation  to 
offer  some  other,  and  presumably  better,  solution  for  the 


APPENDIX 


163 


problem,  e.g.,  the  imposition  of  severe  and  definitely 
defined  restrictions,  instead  of  exclusion. 

As  has  been  suggested,  each  speaker  should  so  appor¬ 
tion  his  allotted  time  between  the  refutation  of  his  op¬ 
ponents’  arguments  and  the  discussion  of  his  constructive 
policy  and  arguments,  as  to  permit  himself  the  oppor¬ 
tunity  of  doing  some  measure  of  justice  to  both.  He 
should,  in  the  main,  adhere  strictly  to  the  predetermined 
division  of  time.  Of  course,  unexpected  developments  in 
his  opponents’  case  may  require  some  modification  of  the 
apportionment  of  his  time. 

Each  of  the  succeeding  speakers  should  spend  part  of 
his  time  in  the  discussion  of  the  fallacies  in  the  argu¬ 
mentation  of  his  immediate  opponent  or  refutation,  and 
the  remainder  urging  additional  points  in  support  of  that 
which  his  side  advocates. 

When  each  member  of  the  teams  has  spoken,  the  debate 
is  closed,  as  stated  above,  by  the  two  leaders.  The  leader 
of  the  negative  speaks  first,  and  the  final  speech  is  made 
by  the  leader  of  the  affirmative.  No  new  arguments  may 
be  introduced  in  the  closing  speeches.  Each  speaker  sum¬ 
marizes  the  main  arguments  urged  by  his  colleagues,  and 
endeavors  to  show  the  inconclusiveness  of  the  arguments 
and  refutation  of  his  opponents.  Each  should  endeavor 
to  stress  very  strongly  the  clearness  and  convincingness 
of  the  case  made  out  by  his  own  side  and  the  inconclusive¬ 
ness  and  inadequacy  of  that  of  the  other  side. 

Should  there  be  a  general  debate  it  would,  as  indicated 
in  another  section,  take  place  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
formal  debate. 

GATHERING  MATERIAL 

It  is  obvious  that  the  person  who  essays  to  debate 
should  secure  all  the  material  on  the  question  that  is 
available  for  him.  Of  course  material  that  is  accessible 
to  debaters  who  are  resident  in  the  larger  cities,  with  their 


164 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


extensive  libraries,  is  inaccessible  to  those  who  live  in  the 
smaller  villages  or  in  rural  communities.  It  is  advisable 
for  the  latter  to  choose  subjects  upon  which  they  can 
readily  secure  literature.  However,  on  account  of  the 
wide  circulation  of  the  newspapers,  and  the  availability 
of  books  and  magazines,  at  the  present  time,  there  are 
few  questions  that  are  not  appropriate  to  both  urban  and 
rural  debaters.  The  advantages  that  accrue  to  the  debater 
as  a  result  of  research,  other  than  those  that  are  derived 
from  the  preparation  for  debating,  are  the  development 
of  a  wider  range  of  information,  a  facility  in  the  selection 
of  relevant  matter,  and  the  ability  to  read  intelligently. 
I  would,  however,  at  this  point,  sound  a  note  of  warning. 
Care  should  be  taken  that  the  reading  is  not  made  a  sub¬ 
stitute  for  thinking. 

In  order  to  begin  an  intelligent  search  for  material  it  is 
necessary  to  make  a  temporary  analysis  of  the  question, 
that  is,  to  decide  upon  the  meaning  of  the  term  used,  the 
main  issue,  and  the  principal  headings  and  sub-headings 
under  which  the  treatment  of  the  subject  may  be  devel¬ 
oped.  As  one  pursues  the  reading,  however,  the  pre¬ 
liminary  analysis  of  the  question  may  be  very  much 
modified.  In  the  meantime,  it  has  served  to  direct  intelli¬ 
gent  research,  and  has  led  to  relevant  reading. 

The  shrewd  debater  reads  on  both  sides  of  the  question. 
In  fact,  to  be  conversant  with  the  side  of  the  question 
advocated  by  one’s  opponents  is  indispensable  to  success¬ 
ful  debating.  And,  besides,  a  thorough  and  critical 
acquaintance  with  both  sides  of  the  proposition  enables  a 
debater  to  more  clearly  and  correctly  define  the  issue,  dis¬ 
cover  and  strengthen  the  vulnerable  points  in  his  own 
arguments,  and  anticipate  the  weaknesses  in  those  of  his 
opponents. 

During  the  process  of  reading  and  research,  it  is  neces¬ 
sary  for  the  debater  to  have  a  note-book  beside  him.  A 


APPENDIX 


165 


number  of  pages  should  be  devoted  to  each  heading  and 
sub-heading.  Probably,  since  re-arrangement  of  material 
is  frequently  necessary,  e.g.,  a  point  inserted  under  one 
heading,  will  be  found  later  to  be  more  relevant  to  another, 
loose  leaves  or  cards  are  preferable  to  a  note-book.  The 
material  secured  should  be  inserted  under  the  heading  to 
which  it  belongs.  It  should  be  quoted  exactly,  associated 
with  the  exact  quotation,  should  be  accurate  as  to  the 
source,  i.e.,  the  authority;  book,  title  and  page;  article, 
where  and  when  published. 

The  material  derived  from  reading  or  research  may  be 
termed  evidence.  Such  evidence  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  namely,  facts,  e.g.,  accepted  statistics,  unques- 
tional  scientific  truths,  acknowledged  historical  facts,  or 
undeniable  current  events;  and  authority.  The  value  of 
evidence  based  upon  authority  depends  upon  the  reliability 
of  the  source  from  which  it  is  derived.  The  source  or 
authority  must  be  disinterested,  and  competent  to  pro¬ 
nounce  upon  the  subject  under  discussion.  He  may  be  a 
person  of  intellectual,  or  moral,  or  religious  superiority; 
or  of  unquestioned  standing,  acknowledged  reputation  in 
some  line  of  research,  occupation  or  profession;  or  of 
eminence  as  a  statesman  or  exponent  of  international 
law,  etc. 

Of  course,  “authority”  is  not  confined  to  persons.  A 
standard  dictionary  is  regarded  by  some  as  indisputable 
in  matters  of  pronunciation  and  definition  of  terms.  The 
Bible  is  universally  accepted  by  Christian  people  on  relig¬ 
ious  questions.  Evidence  based  upon  authority  is  of  value 
in  actual  debating  only  when  the  source  is  given.  The 
degree  of  the  value  of  such  evidence  depends  upon  the 
degree  of  the  reliability  of  the  authority. 

Then,  the  question  arises,  “where  can  I  secure  informa¬ 
tion  to  guide  me  in  my  search  for  material?”  Obviously, 
I  cannot  enumerate  every  source.  Some  are  persons 


166 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


competent  to  give  advice  about  special  subjects,  library- 
catalogues,  such  indexes  to  magazines  as  Pool’s  Index  and 
the  Reader’s  Guide. 

Subjects  based  upon  problems  of  public  interest  are 
chosen  for  debating  more  frequently  than  any  other. 
Much  information  concerning  these  problems  may  be  de¬ 
rived  from  official  publications  of  the  bodies  interested. 
Usually  these  can  be  secured  on  request.  Some  of  these 
are  the  publications  of  the  different  Government  Depart¬ 
ments,  universities,  industrial  boards,  municipalities, 
social  and  religious  organizations,  manufacturers’  asso¬ 
ciations,  peace  societies,  agricultural  societies,  etc. 

The  various  departments  of  the  Provincial  and  Domin¬ 
ion  Governments  issue  reports  on  matters  coming  under 
their  supervision.  A  letter  or  post  card  to  the  depart¬ 
ment  will  bring  copies  of  its  reports  to  you.  The  agri¬ 
cultural  and  other  departments  of  the  various  provincial 
governments  and  the  Trade  and  Commerce,  Railways  and 
Canals,  Agricultural,  Labor,  Statistical,  and  other  depart¬ 
ments  of  the  Dominion  Government,  all  issue  informative 
reports.  Political  handbooks  also  contain  much  material 
useful  to  debaters. 

The  files  of  the  nearest  newspaper  office  would  also  be 
useful.  But  newspaper  editors  should  not  be  asked  to 
prepare  material  for  debaters.  They  are  too  busy  for 
that. 

The  logical  treatment  and  organization  of  the  evidence, 
or  the  process  of  proof  based  upon  it  is  known  as  argu¬ 
mentation,  and  the  result  is  the  argument. 

THE  BRIEF 

In  the  preceding  section  of  this  series,  I  indicated  the 
sources  and  discussed  the  recording  of  the  material  or 
evidence  for  a  debate. 

In  this  section  I  shall  concern  myself  with  the  organi- 


APPENDIX 


167 


zation  of  the  evidence.  This  systematization  of  the  ma¬ 
terial  constitutes  the  outline  of  the  argument,  and  is 
designated  the  brief.  A  brief  is  indispensable  to  a 
beginner.  Without  the  logical  marshaling  of  ideas 
represented  in  it,  he  would  be  very  unlikely  to  offer  a 
well-ordered  argument.  The  brief  fixes  the  ideas  in  the 
mind  of  the  debater  according  to  their  importance  and 
correct  relationship.  Consequently  it  is  essential  to  clear¬ 
ness  and  relevancy  in  debating.  Of  course,  in  the  actual 
debate  the  speaker  should  not  confine  himself  simply  to 
repeating  the  severe  and  meagre  wording  of  the  outline. 
He  should  amplify  the  main  and  related  ideas  into  what 
is  known  as  a  speech,  without  interfering  with  their  order 
or  altering  their  relationship. 

A  brief  comprises  three  parts:  (1)  the  introduction; 
(2)  the  proof,  and  (3)  the  conclusion.  Of  these  divisions 
the  most  important  is  the  second.  In  a  debating  contest 
in  which  there  are  a  number  of  speakers  on  either  side, 
each  leader  delivers  the  introduction  and  the  conclusion 
for  the  argumentation  of  his  colleagues  and  himself. 
Each  of  the  speakers,  other  than  the  leaders,  may  regard 
the  speeches  of  the  previous  speakers  on  his  side  as  suffi¬ 
cient  introduction  and  launch  immediately  into  his  argu¬ 
ment,  or  he  may  briefly  summarize  the  points  already 
made  by  his  colleagues,  before  entering  upon  the  refuta¬ 
tion  and  the  phase  of  the  proof  that  has  been  assigned  to 
him.  Each  intermediate  speaker’s  conclusion  should  be 
a  concise  recapitaulation  of  the  points  he  has  made  in 
his  own  speech. 

The  introduction  of  a  brief  and  the  main  introduction 
in  a  formal  debate  should  contain,  as  succinctly  as  clear¬ 
ness  will  permit,  a  discussion  of  the  origin  of  the  ques¬ 
tion,  a  definition  of  the  terms  employed,  and  a  statement 
of  the  main  issue. 

The  proof  is  the  essential  part  of  the  brief.  The 


168 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


outline  of  the  proof  consists  of  a  classification  of  the 
evidence  according  to  the  degree  of  its  importance  and 
applicability.  The  main  arguments,  which  bear  directly 
upon  the  main  issue  and  are  therefore  the  most  important, 
should  be  selected  first;  then,  such  subordinate  evidence 
as  is  related  directly  to  the  main  arguments;  then,  the 
subsidiary  points  that  are  related  to  the  subordinate  evi¬ 
dence,  etc.  It  is  too  evident  for  comment  that  the  sub¬ 
ordinate  and  subsidiary  ideas  are  indirectly  related  to  the 
main  issue  through  the  main  arguments.  It  is  customary 
to  reduce  this  organization  of  the  evidence  to  a  form.  In 
this  way,  the  argument  is  more  vividly  impressed  upon 
the  mind  of  the  speaker.  The  usual  practice  is  to  state 
the  main  issue  at  the  head  of  the  form,  and  beneath  this 
the  subordinate,  subsidiary,  and  auxiliary  arguments, 
margined  and  designated  by  letters  and  figures,  according 
to  the  degree  of  their  importance  or  the  directness  of  their 
relationship  to  the  main  issue.  For  example,  the  main 
arguments  may  be  indicated  by  Roman  numerals;  the 
subordinate  by  capital  letters;  the  subsidiary  by  Arabic 
numerals,  and  the  auxiliary  by  small  letters.  The  differ¬ 
ent  degrees  of  importance  assigned  to  the  terms  subordi¬ 
nate,  subsidiary  and  auxiliary  are  of  course  arbitrary. 

The  following  will  serve  as  a  type  of  the  form  for  the 
outline  of  an  argument.  It  is  subject  to  such  modification 
as  the  number  of  subordinate,  etc.,  arguments  may  indi¬ 
cate.  I  have  outlined  but  one  main  argument.  Each  of 
the  other  main  arguments,  in  an  extended  brief,  would  be 
similarly  treated. 

Statement  of  Main  Issue. 

I.  Main  Argument. 

A.  Subordinate  Evidence. 

1.  Subsidiary  Facts. 

(a)  Auxiliary  Points. 


APPENDIX 


169 


B.  Subordinate  Evidence. 

1.  Subsidiary  Facts. 

(a)  Auxiliary  Points,  etc. 

The  conclusion  includes  a  brief  and  concise  summary 
of  the  chief  points  made  in  the  argument,  and  a  restate¬ 
ment  of  the  proposition  which  the  speaker  assumes  has 
been  proven. 


RULES  OF  PROCEDURE 

On  account  of  the  necessary  limitations  of  the  space 
allotted  for  this  section,  the  subject  of  procedure  has  not 
been  dealt  with  exhaustively.  I  have  selected  only  those 
rules  that  I  deem  of  immediate  interest  for  those  clubs 
and  assemblies  for  which  this  series  of  articles  are  de¬ 
signed.  I  have  included,  also,  some  matters  of  interest 
for  such  assemblies  other  than  the  rules  of  procedure,  as, 
for  example,  the  duties  of  the  presiding  officer,  decorum, 
etc.  Of  course,  I  can  claim  no  originality  in  the  prepa¬ 
ration  of  this  section.  Rules  of  procedure  are  based  upon 
accepted  usage.  If  this  section  possesses  any  merit,  it 
lies  solely  in  the  fact  that  I  have  derived  the  rules  from 
authoritative  sources. 

The  presiding  officer  opens  the  meeting  by  taking  the 
chair  and  calling  the  members  to  order.  Announces  the 
business  before  the  meeting  in  the  order  upon  which  it 
is  to  be  acted ;  receives  and  submits  all  motions  and  propo¬ 
sitions  presented  by  members ;  interprets,  when  necessary, 
a  point  of  order  and  practice;  restrains  members,  when 
engaged  in  debate,  within  the  rules  of  order ;  authenticates 
with  his  signature  all  the  acts  and  proceedings  of  the 
organization;  receives,  and  announces  to  the  assembly,  all 
communications. 

The  presiding  officer  shall  not  participate  in  the  debate 
or  proceedings  in  any  other  capacity  than  as  such  officer. 


170 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


However,  he  may  vacate  the  chair  by  requesting  some  one 
else,  usually  the  vice-president,  to  take  it,  and  take  part 
in  the  proceedings. 

When  the  presiding  officer  rises  to  speak,  any  other 
member  who  may  have  risen  for  the  same  purpose  should 
sit  down.  This,  however,  does  not  give  the  presiding 
officer  the  right  to  interrupt  anyone  to  whom  he  has  given 
the  right  to  speak. 

The  presiding  officer  should  give  close  attention  to  the 
proceedings  of  the  assembly,  and  to  what  is  said  in  de¬ 
bate.  He  may  read  sitting,  but  he  should  rise  to  state  a 
motion  or  put  a  question  to  the  meeting. 

No  member  should  disturb  the  meeting  or  another 
member  by  whispering  to  others,  by  passing  the  presiding 
officer  and  the  speaker,  by  taking  books  or  papers  from 
or  writing  upon  the  chairman’s  or  secretary’s  table  with¬ 
out  permission.  In  short,  members  should  govern  them¬ 
selves  as  ladies  and  gentlemen. 

The  business  of  a  meeting  is  usually  set  in  motion, 
especially  in  reference  to  some  particular  subject,  by  some 
member  submitting  a  proposition.  When  a  member 
wishes  to  address  or  make  a  communication  to  an  assem¬ 
bly,  he  must  first  “obtain  the  floor.”  He  does  this  by 
rising  in  his  place  and  addressing  the  chairman  by  his 
title ;  the  member  may  then  proceed.  In  case  two  or  more 
members  should  arise  to  address  him  at  the  same  time, 
the  chairman  should  grant  permission  to  speak  to  the  one 
whom  he  heard  first.  In  case  his  decision  is  disputed, 
the  matter  may  be  referred  to  a  vote  of  the  members,  the 
name  of  the  person  to  whom  the  chairman  granted  per¬ 
mission  to  speak  being  submitted  first. 

A  motion  should  be  carefully  put  into  form  before  its 
adoption  is  moved.  It  should  then  be  moved  and  seconded. 
The  mover  should  place  a  written  copy  of  the  motion 
in  the  hands  of  the  chairman.  It  is  then  before  the  as- 


APPENDIX 


171 


sembly  for  debate.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  debate  the 
vote  is  taken.  The  result  becomes  the  judgment  of  the 
meeting. 

In  case  an  amendment  is  offered  to  a  motion,  it  is  put 
first  to  vote.  Should  there  be  an  amendment  to  the 
amendment,  the  amendment  to  the  amendment  is  put  to 
question  first;  then,  if  it  be  not  accepted,  the  amendment; 
and  if  it  be  not  accepted,  the  original  motion. 

A  motion  to  adjourn  is  worded  as  follows:  “That  this 
meeting  adjourn.”  It  is  not  debatable,  or  subject  to 
qualification.  It  takes  precedence  over  all  other  ques¬ 
tions.  If  carried  in  the  affirmative  the  meeting  is  ad¬ 
journed  to  the  next  sitting  day.  If,  however,  the  motion 
is  to  adjourn  to  a  time  other  than  the  next  sitting  day, 
it  is  debatable. 

A  speaker  should  not  mention  a  previous  debater  by 
name,  but  rather  as  the  previous  speaker,  or  my  worthy 
opponent  who  spoke  last,  or  some  equivalent  expression. 

TAKING  OF  VOTE 

When  a  motion  is  made  and  seconded  and  the  debate 
upon  it  is  brought  to  a  close,  the  chairman  then  inquires 
whether  the  assembly  is  ready  for  the  question.  If  no 
member  rises,  the  question  is  stated  and  the  vote  taken. 
The  method  of  voting  may  be  by  silent  assent,  by  showing 
of  hands,  by  roll  call,  or  yeas  and  nays,  by  ballot.  In 
case  the  members  are  equally  divided,  the  chairman  may 
vote.  But  if  he  chooses  to  refrain  from  voting,  the  de¬ 
cision  is  in  the  negative. 

Committees  may  be  selected  by  the  appointment  of  the 
chairman,  or  by  ballot,  or  by  the  nomination  and  vote 
of  the  assembly.  The  person  named  first  on  the  commit¬ 
tee  usually  acts  as  chairman.  However,  this  is  a  matter 


172 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


of  courtesy,  since  a  committee  has  the  right  to  choose  its 
own  chairman. 

Every  debating  society  should  possess  a  manual  of 
parliamentary  law.  The  standard  Canadian  book  on  this 
subject  is  Bourinot’s  Rules  of  Order. 

HINTS  TO  THE  PRESIDING  OFFICER 

1.  The  presiding  officer  of  a  debating  club  should  have 
a  knowledge  of  parliamentary  rules  and  practice. 
He  can  secure  this  knowledge  from  a  manual  of 
parliamentary  law. 

2.  He  should  be  just  and  impartial  in  his  rulings. 

3.  He  should  be  self-controlled  and  courteous. 

4.  He  should  render  his  decisions  promptly. 

5.  If  necessary,  he  should  give  the  reasons  for  a 
decision,  and  give  them  clearly,  concisely  and 
convincingly. 

HINTS  FOR  DEBATERS 

1.  Speak  concisely,  relevantly,  and  exactly. 

2.  Do  not  waste  your  time  in  verbosity,  or  attempts 
at  rhetorical  flights. 

3.  If  your  opponent  has  drifted  away  from  the  main 
issue,  or  if  he  endeavors  to  stress  a  minor  idea,  so 
that  it  will  appear  as  a  main  idea,  that  is,  if  he 
tries  to  “draw  a  herring  across  the  trail,”  restate 
the  question  and  define  the  issue  again. 

4.  Conclude  your  speech  with  a  summary  of  what  you 
have  endeavored  to  accomplish.  Sum  up  what  you 
have  said  and  impress  it  upon  your  hearers  in  a 
very  few  sentences  that  they  will  remember. 

5.  Do  not  write  out  your  speech  in  full.  Speak  from 
notes. 

6.  Confine  your  argumentation  to  the  phase  of  the 


APPENDIX 


173 


question  assigned  to  you.  Do  not  attempt  to  cover 
the  whole  ground. 

7.  Be  courteous  to  your  opponents. 

8.  Treat  your  opponents’  arguments  fairly. 

9.  A  good  time  to  start  to  summarize  is  at  the  warn¬ 
ing  bell. 

10.  Do  not  “hang  on”  after  you  have  been  warned  by 
the  presiding  officer  that  your  time  is  up. 

A  LIST  OF  PROPOSITIONS 

The  assignments  for  the  application  of  the  different 
principles  discussed  in  this  book  include  a  number  of 
problems  stated  in  the  form  of  propositions  suitable  for 
debating,  and  other  problems  that  may  be  so  stated. 

The  following  list  of  propositions  has  been  made  out 
from  questions  of  more  or  less  interest  to  the  public  at 
the  present  time.  Should  the  members  of  any  debating 
club  find  few  questions  in  this  list  of  interest  to  their 
particular  group,  it  will  not  be  difficult  for  them  to  select 
propositions  with  such  qualification : 

1.  The  government  should  exact  legislation  for  the 
compulsory  arbitration  of  all  labor  disputes. 

2.  Municipal  ownership  of  public  utilities  is  desirable. 

3.  Prize  fighting  should  be  prohibited  by  law. 

4.  The  tariff  should  be  revised  at  the  next  session  of 
parliament. 

5.  High  license  is  preferable  to  prohibition  as  a 
method  of  dealing  with  intemperance. 

6.  Partisan  politics  should  be  eliminated  from  mu¬ 
nicipal  elections. 

7.  Football  is  a  hindrance  to  the  best  interests  of  the 
high  school  course. 

8.  Convict  labor  should  be  employed  in  improving 
public  highways. 


174 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


9.  The  Province  of  (Ontario)  should  establish  a  sys¬ 
tem  of  consolidated  schools  for  rural  communities. 

10.  The  Government  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada 
should  not  continue  to  operate  the  railroads. 

11.  Capital  punishment  should  be  abolished. 

12.  Organized  labor  is  a  greater  menace  to  the  com¬ 
monwealth  than  organized  capital. 

13.  A  system  of  compulsory  voting  should  be  adopted 
in  Canada. 

14.  There  is  need  in  Canada  for  the  Progressive 
Party. 

15.  The  boycott  is  a  proper  policy  for  organized  labor. 

16.  Labor-saving  machinery  has  been  injurious  to  the 
laboring  classes. 

17.  Indians  should  no  longer  be  treated  as  wards  of 
the  government. 

18.  The  Province  of  (Ontario)  should  provide  for 
permanent  compulsory  segregation  of  the  feeble¬ 
minded. 

19.  The  elimination  of  profits  offers  the  best  solution 
of  the  liquor  problem. 

20.  Social  functions  which  involve  lavish  expenditures 
are  unjustifiable. 

21.  Trial  by  jury  should  be  abolished. 

22.  Examinations  are  a  fair  test  of  scholarship. 

A  TYPICAL  PROGRAM 

1.  Members  Called  to  Order. — The  chairman  takes 
the  chair  and  calls  the  members  of  the  club  to 
order.  He  should  include,  with  this  duty,  a  few 
remarks  regarding  the  business,  etc.,  of  the  meet¬ 
ing.  This  opening  speech  should  be  short.  By  not 
indulging  in  long  talks  the  chairman  can  expedite 
the  program  of  the  meeting. 


APPENDIX 


175 


2.  Reading  and  Adoption  of  Minutes. — The  chair¬ 
man  calls  upon  the  secretary  to  read  the  minutes  of 
the  last  meeting.  When  the  secretary  has  com¬ 
pleted  the  reading,  the  members  are  permitted  to 
discuss  and  correct,  if  necessary,  the  secretary’s 
report.  The  chairman  then  puts  the  motion  for 
the  adoption  of  the  minutes  of  the  last  meeting  as 
read  or  corrected. 

3.  General  Business. — The  chairman  asks  if  there  is 
any  business  to  be  brought  before  the  meeting.  He 
receives  and  submits,  in  the  proper  manner,  all 
motions  and  propositions  presented  by  the  mem¬ 
bers.  He  then  puts  to  a  vote  such  motions  as  are 
moved  and  seconded. 

4.  Debate  (Direct). — The  chairman  introduces  the 

debate  with  a  few  remarks,  announces  the  ques¬ 
tion,  and  introduces  the  speakers  in  the  order  as¬ 
signed  to  them,  beginning  with  the  leader  of  the 
affirmative.  It  is  well  to  confine  the  introduction 
of  each  speaker  to  a  mere  announcement  of  his 
name  and  the  order  of  his  position  on  the  team, — 
“I  will  now  introduce  to  you  the  second  speaker  on 
the  negative,  Mr.  A - .” 

5.  Debate  (General). — The  chairman  now  calls  upon 
the  other  members  of  the  club  in  the  order  in  which 
their  names  appear  on  the  prepared  list  that  has 
been  placed  in  his  hands,  to  participate  in  the 
debate. 

6.  Retirement  of  Committee  on  Adjudication. — The 
chairman  requests  the  judges  to  retire  and  decide 
which  side  shall  be  declared  the  victor.  The  judges 
usually  retire  to  another  room  in  order  that  they 
may  freely  discuss  the  debating  and  the  debaters. 
It  is  customary  for  the  judges  to  select  one  of 
their  number  to  act  as  chairman  before  proceeding 


176 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


to  the  discussion  of  the  debate.  They  should  make 
their  decision  upon  the  matter,  and  the  manner  of 
debating,  or,  in  other  words,  upon  the  argumenta¬ 
tion  and  delivery. 

7.  Recitation  or  Music. — This  entertainment  should 
be  introduced  when  the  judges  are  reaching  their 
decision.  It  relieves  the  strain  placed  upon  the 
attention  of  the  audience  by  introducing  a  pleasing 
variety. 

8.  A  Speech. — This  speech  should  be  upon  some  sub¬ 
ject  of  interest  selected  and  assigned  by  the  pro¬ 
gram  committee.  It  should  be  limited  to  ten 
minutes. 

9.  Paper  on  Current  Events. — The  person  to  whom 
the  duty  of  preparing  this  paper  upon  current 
events  is  assigned  should  select  carefully  and  dis¬ 
cuss  briefly,  illuminatingly  and  interestingly,  the 
most  important  world  events  that  have  occurred 
since  the  last  meeting. 

10.  Announcement  of  the  Judges’  Decisions. — The 
chairman  of  the  meeting  calls  upon  the  chairman 
of  the  committee  on  adjudication  to  announce  the 
decision.  It  is  desirable  for  the  chairman  of  the 
judges  to  include,  with  the  announcement  of  the 
decision  a  discussion  of  the  merits  and  faults  of  the 
debating,  and  to  offer  some  helpful  suggestions  to 
the  debaters. 

11.  Adjournment. — The  chairman  puts  to  a  vote  a 
motion,  duly  moved  and  seconded,  to  adjourn 
until  the  date  of  the  next  regular  meeting.  If 
this  motion  receives  a  majority  of  the  votes  of 
those  present,  the  chairman  declares  the  meeting 
adjourned  until  the  date  of  the  next  regular  meet¬ 
ing. 


THE  END 


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